Showing papers by "Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis published in 1994"

Maximum-Likelihood Estimation of Fractional Cointegration with an Application to U.S. and Canadian Bond Rates

Abstract: We estimate a multivariate ARFIMA model to illustrate a cointegration testing methodology based on joint estimates of the fractional orders of integration of a cointegrating vector and its parent series. Previous cointegration tests relied on a two-step testing procedure and maintained the assumption in the second step that the parent series were known to have a unit root. In our empirical example of fractional cointegration, we illustrate how uncertainty regarding the order of integration of the parent series can be even more important than uncertainty regarding the order of integration of the cointegrating vector when testing for cointegration.

Why Do Banks Fail? Evidence from the 1920s

Abstract: This paper examines the causes of rural bank failures during the 1920s using a newly created state-level data series. By focusing on rural banks we are able to investigate the impacts of agricultural distress and government policies on the class of banks accounting for 80% of the failures in the decade. Failure rates were highest where farm acreage and land values had increased the most before 1920 because these regions suffered the worst agricultural distress subsequently. Agricultural distress caused more bank failures in states with deposit insurance systems, suggesting that insurance encouraged banks to increase risk as their net worth declined.

Characterizing Cross-Country Consumption Correlations

Abstract: General equilibrium models of international fluctuations that assume complete asset markets predict that consumption will be highly correlated across countries, while the data display correlations that are rather low. It has become common to characterize this empirical regularity by noting that cross-country consumption correlations tend to be lower than corresponding output correlations. This note reconsiders that charac-terization and demonstrates that it is not particularly robust. It also documents a related regularity that is more pervasive: Consumption fluctuations are more highly correlated with domestic production than with world output. This provides an alternative standard for evaluating models of international fluctuations.

International Risk Sharing and Low Cross-Country Consumption Correlations: Are They Really Inconsistent?

Abstract: In dynamic-equilibrium trade models, the common assumption that asset markets are complete implies that correlations of consumption across countries should be quite high. In contrast, measured consumption correlations tend to be rather low. While some suggest this implies that asset market incompleteness is a fundamental feature determining international trade dynamics, this paper provides an example of a simple model economy in which complete markets can be associated with consumption correlations that are lower than output correlations. Conditions for substitution elasticities associated with this result are derived for a two-country, two-good endowment model with heterogeneous agents.

M2 and Monetary Policy: A Critical Review of the Recent Debate

Abstract: Recently an intense debate has focused on M2’s usefulness as an intermediate target for monetary policy. A review of two leading contributions to the debate indicates that their empirical results are sensitive to changes in key assumptions. Moreover, their empirical results lack the deep structural foundations that are necessary for reliable policy analysis.

Federal Reserve Lending to Banks that Failed: Implications for the Bank Insurance Fund

Abstract: Debate that led to passage of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Improvement Act (FDICIA) in 1991 focused on changes in public policy to reduce losses of the deposit insurance funds. One aspect of public policy subject to such scrutiny was lending by the Federal Reserve to troubled banks. Analysis prepared by Congressional staff indicated that over 300 of the banks that failed in 1985–91 were borrowing from the Fed when they failed, and that 90 percent of the banks that borrowed for extended periods of time eventually failed.1 Other evidence caused the authors of that Congressional staff study to conclude that Fed credit extended the life of borrowers that ultimately failed. Critics of Fed lending practices concluded on the basis of this evidence that lending to troubled banks increased losses to the Bank Insurance Fund (BIF).2 This concern led to constraints on Federal Reserve lending to troubled banks in FDICIA (see the next section below).

Using genetic algorithms to model the evolution of heterogeneous beliefs

Abstract: Genetic algorithms have been used by economists to model the process by which a population of heterogeneous agents learn how to optimize a given objective. However, most general equilibrium models in use today presume that agents already know how to optimize. If agents face any uncertainty, it is typically with regard to their expectations about the future. In this paper, we show how a genetic algorithm can be used to model the process by which a population of agents with heterogeneous beliefs learns how to form rational expectation forecasts. We retain the assumption that agents optimally solve their maximization problem at each date given their beliefs at each date. Agents initially lack the ability to form rational expectations forecasts and have, instead, heterogeneous beliefs about the future. Using a genetic algorithm to model the evolution of these beliefs, we find that our population of artificial adaptive agents eventually coordinates their beliefs so as to achieve a rational expectations equilibrium of the model. We also report the results of a number of computational experiments that were performed using our genetic algorithm model.

A model of learning and emulation with artificial adaptive agents

Abstract: We study adaptive learning behavior in a sequence of n-period endowment overlapping generations economies with fiat currency, where n refers to the number of periods in agents' lifetimes. Agents initially have heterogeneous beliefs and seek to form multi-step-ahead forecasts of future prices using a forecast rule chosen from a vast set of possible forecast rules. Agents take optimal actions given their forecasts of future prices. They learn in every period by creating new forecast rules and by emulating the forecast rules of other agents. Computational experiments with artificial adaptive agents are conducted. These experiments yield three qualitatively different types of outcomes. In one, the initially heterogeneous population of artificial agents learns to coordinate on a low inflation, stationary perfect foresight equilibrium. In another, we observe persistent currency collapse. The third outcome is a lack of coordination within the allotted time frame. One possible outcome, a stationary perfect foresight equilibrium with a relatively high inflation rate, is never observed.

Characterizing cross-country consumption correlations

Abstract: General equilibrium models of international fluctuations which assume complete asset markets predict that consumption will be highly correlated across countries, while the data display correlations which are rather low. It is common to characterize this empirical regularity by noting that cross-country consumption correlations tend to be lower than corresponding output correlations. This paper reconsiders that characterization and demonstrates that it is not particularly robust. The paper also documents a related regularity that is more pervasive: Consumption fluctuations are more highly correlated with domestic production than with world output. Implications for the evaluation of theoretical models are discussed.