Showing papers in "Academy of Marketing Studies Journal in 2011"

Participating in the Conversation: Exploring Usage of Social Media Networking Sites

Abstract: The use of social networks has risen dramatically over the last few years as users have reached out to friends, new acquaintances and businesses through this new means of communication. If firms are to successfully utilize social networks as a channel through which they reach their customers, they must fully understand the reasons that these customers choose to use social networks. Using the relationship between attitude and behavioral intentions established in the Theory of Reasoned Action and applied to technology use by the Technology Acceptance Model, this research examines constructs that influence consumer attitudes toward social networks and their intentions to use, continue using, and recommend social networks. The findings indicate that the level of enjoyment derived from using social networks is the strongest positive influence and that the drama associated with behaviors of others on the social network can be the strongest negative influence. These findings also show that the constructs of ease of use and usefulness made popular by the Technology Acceptance Model play no significant role influencing user attitudes or intentions with regard to social networks. INTRODUCTION In the last 10-15 years, use of social networking sites has exploded in the United States and globally. Users range from tech-sawy young adults to baby boomers and older adults seeking ways to reconnect with family and friends (Anderson, 2009). In this study, we examine one of the important user groups, college students, and their attitudes toward using social networking. Drawing upon the Theory of Reasoned Action, Theory of Planned Behavior, the Composite Model of Attitude Behavior Relations and the Technology Acceptance Model, we develop and test a model to explain college students' intentions to use social networking. Our findings shed light on factors that have contributed to the rapid increase in social networking. Social media allows users to go from simply content consumers to content producers by publishing information. Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) define social media as "a group of Internetbased applications that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0 \ and that allow the creation and exchange of user generated content." According to Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) there are six types of social media: collaborative projects, blogs and microblogs, content communities, social networking sites, virtual game worlds, and virtual social worlds. Our focus in this study is social networking sites, which are applications that enable users to connect by creating personal information profiles, inviting friends and colleagues to have access to those profiles, and sending e-mails and instant messages between each other Kaplan and Haenlein (2010). Popular examples of social networking sites are My Space (created in 2003) and Facebook (created in 2004). Facebook is ranked as the third most popular online brand in the world, with over 54% of the world's internet population visiting Facebook (Neilsen, 2010). In April 2010, social networking sites were visited by three-quarters of global consumers who went online, which is an increase of 24% over April 2009 (Neilsen, 2010). The average visitor spends 66%) more time on these sites than a year ago, almost 6 hours in April 2010 versus 3 hours, 31 minutes in April 2009 (Neilsen, 2010). In July, 2010, Facebook surpassed having 500 Million users worldwide (Zuckerberg, 2010). It took the site about three months to climb from 300 to 350 million users and only about two months to gain another 50 million, then another three months to make it to 500 million. MySpace is still a top 10 website in the United States, with about 57 Million unique visitors and over one-quarter of the US internet population still interacting with MySpace on a daily basis (Prescott, 2010). Among college students, Anderson Analytics (Anderson, 2009) in their annual American College Student Survey found that Facebook was viewed as "cool" by 82%» of males and 90%> of females. …

Are Consumers Following Retailers to Social Networks

Abstract: INTRODUCTION The current economy poses many challenges for marketers and retailers. A Yankelovich Partners study (2005) found almost sixty percent of US customers find marketing to be irrelevant for them personally, and seventy percent are interested in products and services that would help block marketing attempts. Somewhat ironically, the same study also found that customers respond more favorably to marketing when they have control. Consumers are happier being a part of community, rather than the target of a marketing campaign (Cocheo, 2009). Consumers are more likely to buy something that is recommended to them, rather than when it is "marketed" to them; this is even more likely when the recommendation comes from someone that they trust. Nielsen (2009) reported that global online video has grown 339% since 2003 and time spent viewing has increased almost 2000% In addition to the growth in the use of video, the number of online social media users has grown 87% since 2003, and the time spent on these sites has increased 883%. In the last year alone, (2008) time spent on social networking sites increased 73%. A large percentage (85%) of social media networking users want companies to interact with them using social media applications (Nail, 2009). A 2006 comScore Media Metrix report (Trusov, Bucklin, & Pauwels, 2009) indicated every second, online users in the US had visited at least one of the top fifteen social networking sites, and that approximately fifty social networking sites each had more than one million registered users. In 2007 Oser and Adepiju reported that 37 percent of the US adult internet population and 70 percent of teens used online social networking at least once per month. Predictions show that the total US social networking audience will grow to 105 million in 2011. According to Neilsen Online (2009) research, use of social networks and blogs is now the fourth most popular online category. Alex Burmaster, of Neilsen Online, stated "social networking is not just growing rapidly, it's evolving in terms of a broader audience, and compelling in functionality." One-third of Internet users report comments by consumers provided on the social media sites have been influential when they make a purchase decision, (Deatsch, 2009a), but just 11% considered advertising to be as effective. During the past year, almost half of Americans had consulted social media while shopping, and more than one-third, (37%), had done so in the past three months. Based upon the usage rate and statistics, there is no question that retailers are quickly incorporating the use of social networking sites into their marketing communication strategy. The use of these sites became even more advantageous as many retailers implemented the benefits of the sites' applications during the holiday season in an effort to generate revenue during this struggling economy. Many have recognized that social networking is about linking people with common interests. Companies such as American Eagle, Gap, Ice.com, Victoria's Secret, Macy's and Nike have experimented and/or incorporated the use of social networking, (Reda, 2008). The challenge for companies is learning how to use social networks to the greatest benefit. Many retailers used such social networking sites as Facebook.com, discussed later, to utilize an application that the network labels "events". Retailers such as JCPenney and Macy's, created events to encourage customers to visit their online as well as brick-and-mortar sites in order to take advantage of special promotions and sales during a specified period of time. Results of research conducted by a team of Fellows of the Society for New Communication Research (Barnes, Cass, Getgood, Gillin, & Goosieaux, 2008) found evidence to support the significance of social networking to current promotional mix decisions. Consumers 25-55 years old, college-educated, and earning $100,000 or more are among the most savvy and sought after consumers. …

The Effects of Information Privacy and Online Shopping Experience in E-Commerce

Abstract: The purpose of this study was two-fold: 1) to investigate the effect of e-tailer information privacy policy on customers' privacy concerns and their perceptions of the e-tailer trustworthiness and 2) to examine the effect of consumers' online shopping experience on their reactions to the e-tailer's privacy policy The empirical results showed that consumers' privacy concerns partially mediate the effect of information privacy policy on e-tailer trustworthiness These findings suggest that information privacy may play a dual role in shaping customers' perceptions of e-tailer trustworthiness: 1) indirectly - by informing customers about the intended uses for their personal information and thus reducing their privacy concerns and 2) directly - by serving as a signal of the e-tailer's integrity and general concern for customers' well-being In addition, we emphasize the importance of considering consumers' experience with online shopping when studying their privacy perceptions online In our study, more experienced online shoppers demonstrated lower privacy concerns and appeared to have a stronger response to the e-tailer's privacy policy than less experienced online shoppers INTRODUCTION For a decade information privacy has been one of the central issues in e-commerce research across many disciplines Extensive research has shown that due to a different nature of shopping environment, consumers perceive online transactions as risky, form heightened privacy concerns and such concerns become the main barrier for electronic commerce (Hoffma, Novak & Peralta, 1999) In marketing, information privacy has been linked to online trust (Bart et al, 2005; Eastlick et al, 2006; Hoffman et al, 1999; Pan & Zinkhan, 2006), e-service quality (Zeithaml et al, 2002), and online purchasing (Malhotra et al, 2004) Some researchers have examined the antecedents of e-shoppers' privacy perceptions, advocating various privacy management strategies such as opt-in/opt-out tactics, monetary compensation for customer information, and third-party privacy seals (Culnan, 1995; Goodwin, 1991; Rifon et al, 2005) In this study we will investigate yet another privacy management strategy that focuses on the transparency of the e-tailer' s consumer information practices The supporters of the transparency strategy argue that customers would be more willing to trust the e-tailer with their personal information if the e-tailer explained the intended uses of customer information (Hoffman et al, 1999; Pan & Zinkhan, 2006) This view suggests that the mere transparency of the e-tailer' s information practices can reduce customers' privacy concerns and enhance their perceptions of the e-tailer trustworthiness However, research shows that many consumers either do not read or do not fully comprehend e-tailers' information privacy policies thus raising questions about their effectiveness in reducing customers' information privacy concerns (Cranor et al, 2006; Meinert et al, 2006; Milne & Culnan, 2004; Milne et al, 2006; Vail et al, 2008, Nehf, 2007; Proctor et al, 2008) Furthermore, little if anything is known about the effect of customers' previous online shopping experience on their reactions to the e-tailer' s information privacy policy Is it effective for all customers regardless of whether they are novice or experienced online shoppers? While Bart et al (2005) show that both a consumer's Internet shopping experience and the website privacy policy have a positive influence on e-trust, we have not found any research that looked at the interaction between these two variables This study will attempt to address these issues by specifying a structural equation model where customers' perceptions of e-tailer' s information privacy policy, their online shopping experience, and the interaction of these two variables are explicitly linked to their privacy concerns and their perceptions of e-tailer trustworthiness …

Using rfm data to optimize direct marketing campaigns: a linear programming approach

Abstract: INTRODUCTION For decades, wireless carriers have treated handset manufacturers like serfs, using access to their networks as leverage to dictate the kind of phones to be manufactured, their cost, and the available features. Carriers have largely viewed handsets as cheap, disposable lures that have been massively subsidized to snare subscribers and lock them into using proprietary services. However, the iPhone has upset that balance of power. Carriers are learning that the right phone--even a pricey one--can attract customers and bring in revenue. Now, in pursuit of an Apple-like contract, every manufacturer is racing to create a phone that consumers will love, instead of one of that carriers will approve. Currently, the market for high-end phones like the Apple iPhone is growing. Many people want the Internet, video, and personal digital assistant (PDA) features in one device. The smartphone market will likely continue to expand rapidly in coming years. As a result, more companies are entering the market and increasing competition. Traditional companies have typically conducted consumer research, characterized customer satisfaction, determined how products are used, identified explicit product-related needs, and then focused on developing product features that meet those needs. But they have not made an effort to uncover the full range of their customers' unspoken needs and unmet wants. Delivering innovative product and service offerings requires personal interactions with customers. These interactions should be designed to let firms listen and carefully observe as customers express their true feelings about their experiences. The rapid advances in information communications technology provide greater opportunities for today's firms to establish, nurture, and sustain more long-term relationships with their customers than ever before. The ultimate goal is to transform these relationships into greater profitability by reducing customer acquisition costs and increasing repeat purchases. Recognizing the mounting importance of customer orientation, firms in all kinds of industries, ranging from manufacturing to information services, are exploring service-led growth as a promising means of differentiation. Service is no longer treated as a stand-alone marketing decision aimed at increasing customer satisfaction. Telecommunications companies are advancing technology and exploring new product offerings. As a result, the competition within the industry is increasing. The U.S. mobile communications market, one of largest, is especially competitive. How should firms survive in such competitive markets? In the past, customers were provided with financial incentives to sign up or switch service from one provider to another. Over time, with the increased market saturation, companies have come to realize their performance can improve by focusing more on retaining customers than attaining new customers. As the market provides an increasing range of opportunities for customers, how can mobile telecommunications service providers create and maintain customer loyalty? The present paper investigates key drivers that generate and maintain customer loyalty to smartphone and mobile telecommunications service providers. In doing so, this paper examines the relationships between corporate image, price, product quality, product innovation, and customer loyalty. LITERATURE REVIEW Although customer loyalty is increasingly seen as a prime determinant of long-term financial performance in competitive markets, there are clear gaps in our knowledge of the antecedents of loyalty. Service quality and customer satisfaction are viewed as key drivers of customer loyalty (Lai, Griffin, & Babin, 2009), and research generally tends to consider the links between key drivers and loyalty (Balabanis, Reynolds, & Simintiras, 2006; Guo, Xiao, & Tang, 2009). A study demonstrated online word-of-mouth has a positive relationship to customer loyalty (Gruen, Osmonbekov, & Czaplewski, 2006). …

Making Universities Relevant: Market Orientation as a Dynamic Capability within Institutions of Higher Learning

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Today's universities are facing significant budget constraints due to economic downturns as well as political and funding trends. Private universities experience reduced donations and returns on investment, while public universities receive less financial resources from governments and other funding sources. Faced with these challenges, many universities reduced the scholarships for newly enrolled students, postponed university building renovations, minimized hiring, and reduced or eliminated salary increases. Recognizing that these steps represent only a short term solution, many universities focus on promoting programs or actions that can generate long-term revenue for their institutions. Consequently, some universities entered the global market and recruited higher numbers of international students, especially from China and India (Iling, 1996). Other universities focused on bridging gaps between universities and the industry, toward greater facilitation of the technology transfer process. Finally, other universities created different programs to meet specific community needs, such as entrepreneurship programs, leadership certificate programs, and healthcare management programs. To survive the competitive pressures and economic downturns, universities continue to react to political, economic, technological, and other environmental changes. To deal with the new environmental uncertainty, a university needs a culture that is relevant and responsive to the external environment. Culture, as defined by Todorovic (2004) is a set of complex routines which configure internal organizational resources into capabilities and competencies. Market orientation represents one set of dynamic complex routines, in itself a dynamic capability, which in the private sector is closely correlated to organizational performance (Day, 1994a; Hurley & Hult, 1998; Jaworski, Stathakopoulos, & Krishnan, 1993; Kohli & Jaworski, 1990; Menguc & Auh, 2006; Narver & Slater, 1990; Slater & Narver, 1994b, 1995, 2000). Kotler and Fox (1985) also documented the importance of strategic marketing (also referred to as an orientation) in higher education more than two decades ago. Therefore, a market-oriented university culture should help enable universities to facilitate and manage the change process. We therefore posit that Market orientation does and will increasingly continue to play a significant role in increasing universities' performance--in an increasingly competitive environment. Although the effect of market orientation on firms' performance has been widely recognized, few studies explore the relationship between market orientation and university performance. This study attempts to fill the gap by first examining the structure of market orientation within the university context. Next, we examine what constitutes MO within the university environment, and how MO is related to university performance (Homburg, Krohmer, & Workman Jr, 2004). To this end, our paper proceeds as follows. First, we review and discuss relevant literature constructs. Then, we discuss the methodology employed in this study and present our findings. We conclude with a discussion of findings, including the overarching role of market orientation, as well as the unique function played by each dimension, in terms of its impact on university performance. DYNAMIC CAPABILITIES APPROACH Dynamic capabilities approach is part of the overarching Resource Based View (RBV) paradigm. While RBV considers the competitive advantage gained based on the heterogeneity of firm resources, dynamic capability approach examines the management of those capabilities (Eisenhardt & Martin, 2000). The dynamic capability approach was originally developed as a response to the recognition that the application of the RBV to firms in an environment of rapid technological change is problematic. According to this approach, changes in the external environment are accompanied by a heightened emphasis on "invisible" assets (Arthurs & Busenitz, 2006; Ho & Tsai, 2006; Itami & Roehl, 1987; Lavie, 2006). …

Successful Cause-Related Marketing Partnering as a Means to Aligning Corporate and Philanthropic Goals: An Empirical Study

Abstract: INTRODUCTION As companies look towards a more strategic approach of incorporating philanthropic activities, firms are examining various avenues to align these activities with brand and corporate goals (Varadarajan and Menon, 1988; Fellman, 1999). Cause-Related Marketing (CRM) has emerged as a framework to strategically align both business and charitable goals. CRM refers to corporate social responsibility activities, including offers to contribute a portion of the price of a product or service to a charitable organization. The key feature of CRM is that the charitable contribution is contingent upon the consumer engaging in a revenue producing transaction with the firm (Varadarajan and Menon, 1988). While, several components of CRM have been analyzed, (see Lafferty, Goldsmith and Hult, 2004; Lafferty and Goldsmith, 2003) few CRM studies (i.e. Pracejus and Olsen, 2002; Lafferty and Goldsmith, 2003) have been all-encompassing, and included both antecedents of successful partnerships and outcomes of CRM for the firm and brand. The purpose of this study is multi-faceted. First, this study advances the literature on the factors necessary for successful CRM partnerships from the for-profit firm's perspective. Second, associative learning theory will be applied to build the framework of the antecedents and consequences of successful CRM partnerships. Third, word-of-mouth promotion will be included as a new consequence of a successful CRM partnership as posited in a paper by Thomas, Fraedrich, and Mullen (Forthcoming). CRM PARTNERSHIPS While the vast majority of CRM research has focused on corporate involvement and consumer behavior, a few studies have investigated the effects of the "quality of the CRM partnership" (e.g. Till and Nowak, 2000; Pracejus and Olsen, 2002; Kalligeros, 2005; Lafferty, Goldsmith and Hult, 2004; Lafferty and Goldsmith, 2003). Studies suggest that firms with high levels of compatibility between the core business and social activities are viewed more favorably than firms who have lower levels of compatibility with the social activities (Brown and Dacin, 1997; Sen and Bhattacharya, 2001). Building on the work of Strahilevitz and Meyers (1998), which hints at the possibility that compatibility between firm and charitable cause may impact the success of CRM activities, Pracejus and Olsen (2002) directly investigated this phenomena. The authors found that compatibility does impact CRM success. Additionally, they extend other research into elements of compatibility, such as those between brand extensions and core brands (Aaker and Keller, 1990, 1993), and composite brand alliances (Park, Jun and Shocker, 1996). When core brand and extension compatibility is strong, the extensions have been found to enhance evaluation of the core brand (Aaker, and Keller, 1990, 1993). Similarly, studies of composite branding alliances found that greater compatibility leads to greater success (Park, Jun, and Shocker, 1996). These studies and others (e.g. Kamins, and Gupta, 1994) suggest that consumer attitudes towards brands are increased when compatibility is high. Pracejus, and Olsen (2002) note that CRM is similar to brand alliances because CRM links a brand to another object, the charitable cause. Therefore, CRM partnerships with strong compatibility should have improved performance, such as, increased consumer attitudes toward the brand and firm, and thus a higher likelihood of purchase by the consumer. Using choice-based conjoint analysis, Pracejus, and Olsen (2002) examined the compatibility between firm/brand and charitable cause, how this relationship impacts CRM success, and the magnitude of the effects. Results indicated that CRM impacts consumer choice, and that firm/brand and charitable cause compatibility increases this effect. Specifically, in the first study, Pracejus and Olsen (2002), found that CRM campaigns with a high degree of compatibility between brand and charity have nearly five times more impact on choice, in terms of price trade-off than do campaigns with a low degree of compatibility. …

Young Consumers in the New Marketing Ecosystem: An Analysis of Their Usage of Interactive Technologies

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Recently, corporate executives have begun to realize Facebook, MySpace, instant messaging, cellular telephones, chat rooms and other forms of electronic media have emerged as a new "marketing ecosystem" that is fundamentally transforming how corporations sell to young consumers (Chester & Montgomery, 2008). According to Wilson and Field (2007) "connectivity is a constant of the Gen Y lifestyle, reflected in the skyrocketing popularity of online social-networking sites; furthermore, "Savvy retailers, including American Apparel, Victoria's Secret and Reebok, are using these sites to market to consumers, but also to gain feedback and insight from an audience that is hard to reach through conventional methods." Edelson (2008) confirms this by saying "Victoria's Secret created the Pink brand to appeal to younger customers while protecting the sexy image of its core brand." It is no secret tweens, teens, and young adults are a major demographic for Victoria's Secret brands. Because typical consumption habits of young people can be described as characterized by "hedonism, visibility, and open-mindedness" these retailers attempt to match their messages with these characteristics, which has been successful for retailers like Victoria's Secret (Featherstone, 1991). The most competitive apparel retailers understand that selling handbags and accessories to young customers requires they be always electronically connected to them. Interactive technologies (IT) allow content to be shared and modified in real-time, and as such, facilitate advanced communication and customization (Fiore, Kim, & Lee, 2005). Young consumers are using a multiplicity of IT, apparently in evermore evolving forms, yet, much different than older people. Zaphiris and Sarwar (2006) compared a newsgroup of teens to a newsgroup of seniors and found teens were more highly connected, had more messages sent and received, and had a higher reciprocity. In contrast, the senior newsgroup had a handful of dominant people who managed to make others in the newsgroup dependent on them for communication. Logging onto a social networking site like Facebook or sending instant messages to friends via cell phone or mobile computer are quite commonplace to the millennial generation. Blais et al. (2008) found young people who used instant messaging were associated positively with qualities of most aspects of romantic relationship and best friendship. To the contrary, young people who frequently visited chat rooms were negatively related to best friendship quality. Young consumers use IT to exchange ideas, share information, and build romantic relationships and friendships (Blais, Craig, Pepler, & Connolly, 2008). These young consumers often profile the intimate details of their lives through some form of IT (Williams & Merten, 2008). Some are engaging in high risk-taking behaviors online and/or electronically, including having cybersex (Delmonico & Griffin, 2008). Much to the chagrin of their parents, some of these tweens, teens, and young adults are using various IT to engage in salacious conversations which can affect their purchasing behaviors--and Victoria's Secret is already benefitting based on these young consumers' values. Social structure and preferences, which include knowing how young people relate to IT products they use, are imperative to market researchers trying to sell products to them. It would be helpful to marketers to compare factors associated with young consumers' perceptions of their usage of the various IT associated with social and academic networks they maintain. LITERATURE REVIEW AND HYPOTHESES TESTING Arthur, Sherman, Appel, and Moore (2006) reported five key findings that contribute to the understanding of why young consumers adopt interactive technologies. These five findings are: 1) the opportunity to express their identities, 2) social interaction, 3) immediacy and constant entertainment, 4) discovery, and 5) the ability to create and record. …

Does Satisfaction Affect Brand Loyalty

Abstract: Customer satisfaction and brand loyalty, a consequence of customer satisfaction, have been treated as marketing goals for most firms. Many researches consider loyalty as a multidimensional base. Despite the finding of many researches that satisfaction has a positive impact on repurchase behavior, there are few researches which treat loyalty as actual repurchase behavior. Therefore, this study investigated loyalty as actual repurchase behavior. For this study, we divided loyal consumers into 4 groups, and conducted a longitudinal survey for two years. The results showed that customer satisfaction influenced repurchase intention and behavior differently according to each group.INTRODUCTIONDuring the past three decades, customer satisfaction has been treated as a strategic goal for most companies(Mittal and Kamakura, 2001). Capraro, Broniarczyk, and Srivastava (2003) observe that "today, most firm's programs to control customer defections center heavily on the management of customer satisfaction."Most companies are running programs that can estimate customer satisfaction levels and provide more customer-oriented products and services. Because customer satisfaction is a post hoc evaluation of consumption experience, it has been regarded as a fundamental determinant of long-term consumer behavior (Oliver, 1980). These days researchers study the outcome of customer satisfaction, but there have not been enough researches which deal with consumer complaints, negative WOM, and repurchase intention (Szymanski and Henard, 2001). Especially, studies on the real link between customer satisfaction and customer loyalty are still limited. There are, however, some researches that shows effects of customer satisfaction. It indicates that higher levels of customer satisfaction would lead to greater customer loyalty, which in turn has a positive impact on profitability (Reichhedl and Teal, 1996).There are a lot of environmental factors that are important to a firm's outcome (Bernhardt, Donthu and Kennett, 2000). Therefore, until recently, challenges have been from researchers to find a direct link between customer satisfaction and its outcomes.Loyalty is also an important strategic objective for all marketing managers. Oliver (1999) proposes that a shift in emphasis from satisfaction to loyalty appears to be a worthwhile change in strategy for most firms. Oliver (1997) defines loyalty as "the deeply held commitment to rebuy or repatronize a preferred product/service consistently in the future, thereby causing to purchase same-brand or same brand-set repetitively, despite situational influences and marketing efforts have the potential to cause switching behavior." According to Oliver (1999), consumer loyalty can occur at four different levels: cognitive, affective, conative, and behavioral. Although all four views of consumer loyalty are meaningful, the current research focuses on attitudinal and behavioral loyalty. Loyalty is a construct that has both attitudinal and behavioral elements when defined as "the biased behavioral response expressed over time by some decision-making units with respect to one or more alternative brands out of a set of such brands, which is a function of psychological(decision making, evaluative) processes"(Jacoby and Chestnut 1978,p80). Measuring loyalty by only one facet, that is, attitudinal or behavioral aspects, would result in a spurious attitude (an unstable attitude that does not influence consequent behaviors such as purchase) or spurious behavior (such as inertial behavior or impulsive behavior). Therefore, it is necessary to understand both attitudinal and behavioral loyalty.Theoretically, customer satisfaction should be linked to loyalty behavior. But there are some contradictions about their relationship. For example, Lemon, White, and Winer (2002) and Rust, Lemon, and Zeithaml (2004) maintain that many non-satisfaction elements that increase switching costs are important factors in whether satisfaction has a strong relationship to loyalty or not. …

Location Decision Making: The Case of Retail Service Development in a Closed Population

Abstract: Extant literature on site selection highlights the need for scientific research to aid location decisions. In spite of this call, most published research on site selection utilizes neither a well-developed theory of consumer behavior nor considers the influence of competitors' outlets on location decision. This research employs spatial interaction theory, customer density estimates and minimax decision criterion to address site selection issues for a new coffee shop at a university campus. The decision-support model specified in this paper should be of interest to practitioners. (ProQuest: ... denotes formulae omitted.) BACKGROUND Consider the following scenario about a meeting involving facilities planners in a university: "I think there is a need for coffee shop on campus", quipped a senior manager. "What if we built a state-of-the-art coffee shop on campus and nobody came", said another. "Location is the key", replied another. "Let us have it in the newly planned constructions within the Medical School precinct. That should attract the most customers" was the conclusion of the meeting. The above scenario appears to be a common tactic among managers for selecting locations or sites for businesses ranging from small coffee shops to multi-million dollar establishments (Quirk et al. 2002). Specifically, management intuition tends to replace market research in selecting new locations. More than four decades ago Applebaum (1965) highlighted the need for scientific research to replace intuition in site selection decisions. In spite of this call, most published research on site selection utilizes neither a well-developed theory of consumer behavior nor considers the influence of competitors' outlets on location decision (Lilien et al. 1992; Gonzalez-Benito et al. 2005). While Geographie Information Systems (GIS) do provide opportunities for spatial analysis for site selection purposes (Joerger et al. 1999; Lilien & Rangaswamy 2002), there is evidence in the literature that its usage is skewed towards large firms (Garry 1 996; Hernandez & Biasiotto 200 1 ; Rushton 2003). Furthermore, GIS driven geo-information processing functions do not provide the analyst with an opportunity to specify a theoretical model of consumer behavior to predict new business success at the marketplace. For instance, the GIS software "Enlighten for Retailers" employs demographics and psychographics to profile the population in trade areas (Garry 1996). However, as aptly observed by Rossiter (1 987), psychographics and demographics are far removed from actual customer behavior. To illustrate, consider two customers with similar activities, interests, and opinions (psychographics). While "imitation" or "aspiration" is said to cause or push people with similar psychographics towards a common behavior (Best 2005), it is unlikely that all individuals with similar psychographics will have the same reference group. Further, reference group theory, with "aspiration" as the energizer of behavior, should help better predict sales of socially conspicuous products such as mobile phones and cars; not all types of products. As regards demographics, the literature is replete with failures of demographic variables to differentiate preference for brands (see for example, Sheth & Mittal 2004). Finally, and more importantly, GIS is often unavailable for closed populations such as university campuses. This makes it difficult for managers in such settings to employ off-the-shelf spatial analyses software for site selection purposes. This research is an attempt to assist site selection decisions in such contexts. Specifically, it employs spatial interaction theory, customer density estimates and minimax decision criterion to address site selection issues for a new coffee shop at a university campus. In all, two research questions guided the construction of the paper: * Given full awareness of coffee shops, what fraction of a population would prefer each outlet, and * Which location will produce an optimum share of market potential, and minimum hazard for future sales erosion? …

Case Studies of Cybercrime and Their Impact on Marketing Activity and Shareholder Value

Abstract: Cybercrime, also called e-crime, costs publicly traded companies billions of dollars annually in stolen assets and lost business. Cybercrime can totally disrupt a company's marketing activities. Further, when a company falls prey to cyber criminals, this may cause customers to worry about the security of their business transactions with the company. As a result, a company can lose future business if it is perceived to be vulnerable to cybercrime. Such vulnerability can lead to a decrease in the market value of the company, due to legitimate concerns of financial analysts, investors, and creditors. This study examines 10 case studies of publicly traded companies affected by cybercrime, and its impact on marketing activity and shareholder value. The study also describes some of the major types of cybercrime. Results indicate that costs of cybercrime go beyond stolen assets, lost business, and company reputation; cybercrime has a significant negative effect on shareholder value. INTRODUCTION E-commerce is a fundamental part of marketing activity. Most e-commerce takes place on the websites of publicly traded companies. The term 'cyberspace' refers to the electronic medium of computer networks, principally the Web, in which online communication takes place. A challenge facing e-business or cyber-business is that it is vulnerable to e-crime, also called cybercrime. Cybercrime can totally disrupt a company's marketing activities. Cybercrime costs publicly traded companies billions of dollars annually in stolen assets, lost business, and damaged reputations. Cybercrime costs the US economy over $100 billion per year (Kratchman et al. 2008, Mello 2007). Cash can be stolen, literally with the push of a button. If a company website goes down, customers will take their business elsewhere. In addition to the direct losses associated with cybercrime, a company that falls prey to cyber criminals may lose the confidence of customers who worry about the security of their business transactions. As a result, a company can lose future business if it is perceived to be vulnerable to cybercrime. Such vulnerability may even lead to a decrease in the market value of the company, due to legitimate concerns of financial analysts, investors, and creditors. This study examines types of cybercrime and how they affect marketing activity. In addition, the study reviews 10 case studies of publicly traded companies affected by cybercrime, and its impact on shareholder value. The research questions addressed by this study include: (1) What are some ways that cybercrime affects marketing activity? and (2) Do cybercrime news stories negatively affect shareholder value? Results suggest that there are a number of types of cybercrime that have detrimental effects on marketing activity. Furthermore, the costs of cybercrime go beyond stolen assets, lost business, and company reputation, but also include a negative impact on the company's stock price. E-Business and E-Risk Corporate managers must consider e-risks, that is, potential problems associated with ebusiness. Precautions must be taken against e-fraud, malicious hackers, computer viruses, and other cybercrimes. To some extent, electronic business (e-business) began with the early computers in the 1950s. However, not until development of the World Wide Web in the 1990s did e-business really take off. E-business is exchanging goods or services using an electronic infrastructure. Only a short time ago, using the Internet as a primary way to do business was considered too risky. Today, e-business is simply business; it's the way business is done in the twenty-first century. The Internet is widely used for both business-to-business (B2B) transactions and business-to-consumer (B2C) transactions. The B2B market is from five to seven times larger than B2C. The B2B market is predicted to exceed $5 trillion in the early 21st century. The B2C market is growing as fast but is characterized by a much smaller average transaction size (Kratchman et al. …

Skin Tone as the Signifier of Race: The Effect of Consumer Ethnic Identity on Targeted Marketing

Abstract: INTRODUCTION In spite of the fact that images and portrayals of African Americans have been extensively studied in advertising research, the common variable in those studies has been race without accounting for variance that may result from skin tone differences within race (Bailey 2006; Cox 1970; Dominick and Greenberg 1970; Kassarjian 1969; Shuey, King, and Griffith 1953; Taylor and Lee 1995). As minority spending power and social interactions of different racial groups in America have increased over time, advertisers have increasingly been concerned with reaching minority ethnic groups through visual inclusion. With minority purchasing power increasing (Selig 2010), research in this area is more important than ever before. However, many companies were initially leery of offending the White majority that was their consumer base (Surlin 1977). In a 1953 study (Shuey, King, and Griffith), only 0.6% of ads contained African Americans. By 1980 (Humphrey and Schuman 1984), that frequency had increased to approximately 5.7%, indicating that the country was becoming more comfortable with the use of Blacks in advertisements. Researchers took interest in this phenomenon of using ethnic faces in ads and desired to gain greater insight into both how Blacks in ads were received and the roles that they played in these ads. The studies illuminated the potential impact and effectiveness of these portrayals. However, in these studies, skin tone was rarely addressed. In other fields, such a psychology and sociology, skin tone as a factor of race and racial identity has been examined. Skin tone, defined as the color of a person's skin, has been acknowledged as a specific variable at the root of racially related issues. It has been correlated with feelings of self worth, attractiveness, self control, satisfaction, and with quality of life (Keith and Thompson 2003; Bond and Cash 1992; Boyd-Franklin 1991; Cash and Duncan 1984; Chambers, et al 1994; Okazawa-Rey, Robinson, and Ward 1987). The study of skin tone has also led to a focus on colorism, which is the process of discrimination that gives privilege to people of a lighter-skin tone over their dark-skinned counterparts (Hunter 2005). In general, African American's tend to feel more favorable towards Black models with lighter a skin tone (Meyers 2008).This phenomenon is not exclusive to African Americans because colorism is concerned with actual skin tone, as opposed to racial or ethnic identity. Research done by Shyon Baumann (2008) has shown that people within our culture, regardless of race, have a set of ideals about how people should ideally look, including judgments regarding skin color. Lightness and darkness of skin tone have specific meanings attached to them and we subconsciously relate those meanings to those we encounter. This construct of race has yet to be examined by advertising literature. Black consumers, generally, feel positively towards seeing black model in advertisements and strong ethnic identifiers feel more positively towards a model who looks more like themselves (Green 1999). The research on ethnic identity indicates that one's level of ethnic identity may dictate his/her preference for and judgments about their group (Phinney 1992). In terms of skin color, this stream of research suggests that Blacks who identify strongly with their ethnicity will feel more positively towards darker models than will Blacks who identify less with their ethnicity. This study will test the linkage between Black consumers and how that consumer's ethnic identification effects the reception of advertisements featuring Black models of different skin tones in a marketing context. The findings from this study will help marketers to further understand the dynamics present when targeting Black consumers with ads featuring Black models. LITERATURE REVIEW In the marketing communications field, there has been a lengthy stream of research regarding the depictions of African Americans in advertising and other forms of marketing communications (Bailey 2006; Cox 1970; Dominick and Greenberg 1970; Kassarjian 1969; Shuey, King, and Griffith 1953; Taylor and Lee 1995). …

Measuring the Value of Ingredient Brand Equity at Multiple Stages in the Supply Chain: A Component Supplier's Persepctive

Abstract: INTRODUCTION in today's fast-changing markets, ingredient Branding is becoming a major marketing strategy as demonstrated by the increasing number of products sold with embedded branded components (Prince and Davies 2002; Cooke and Ryan 2000; Washburn, Till, and Priluck 2004). Despite its success in generating positive effects on participants in the value chain (for examples see Kotler and Pfoertsch 2006), the effects of ingredient Branding in business markets has been generally overlooked in terms of brand equity (Desai and Keller 2002; McCarthy and Norris 1999; Norris 1992; Rao, Qu, and Ruekert 1999; Venkatesh and Mahajan 1997; Havenstein 2004; Pfoertsch and Mueller 2006; Kotler and Pfoertsch 2006). This work aims to shed light on understanding ingredient Branding strategies, and suggests valuation tools for assessing brand equity from the component supplier's perspective. The purpose of this paper is to introduce measurement instruments that enable managers to determine that value of ingredient Brand equity at various stages of the value chain, a practice that should be beneficial for both B2B and B2C managers and scholars (Mudambi 2002; Gregory and Sexton 2007; Beverland, Napoli and Lindgreen 2007; Webster and Keller 2004; Lynch and de Chernatony 2004; Anderson and Narus 2004; Kotler and Keller 2006). The benefits of understanding and measuring value derived from ingredient Brand equity at various stages of the value stems from the ability of high equity brands to generate opportunities for successful extensions, resilience against competitors' promotional pressures, and barriers to competitive entry (Aaker 1991, 1992; Kotler and Keller 2006; Farquhar 1989). it is not known however whether companies that rank high in brand equity--such as intel, Tetra Park, Shimano or Dolby--(interbrand 2006) derive value from brand equity at the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) stage, at the consumer stage, or at both stages. Traditional measures and values of brand equity focus only on next-down dyadic stages in the value creation process. In this study, we build on the notion that component suppliers are typically Business-to-Business (B2B) companies with an OEM as a consumer brand extension. We assert that ingredient Branding is a much more complex strategy than the strategy that most would think a B2B branding should be. This complexity requires component suppliers, as well as other firms in the value chain, to gather in-depth information from the various participants of the value chain as well as from the final customer for managing and responding to this strategy appropriately. To address these managerial needs, we extend existing marketing theory by demonstrating the need for a more complex measurement tool that accounts for brand equity as it affects interactions across multiple stages in a value chain. The remainder of this paper proceeds as follows: First, an overview of existing ingredient Branding research is presented. Then, stages that are important to an ingredient Branding strategy are defined and described. Next, measurement instruments are proposed to evaluate success at each of these stages. This leads to the assertion that fruitful stages for ingredient Branding strategies include the B2B dyadic relationships between the component supplier and the OEM, the B2C stage between the OEM and the end user, and the B2B2C stage representing traditional communications for ingredient Branding between component supplier and end user. We outline conclusions and provide an outlook for further research. INGREDIENT BRANDING Ingredient Branding is a particular type of alliance between two products, based on both firms' cooperation in designing and delivering the product, with particular emphasis on consumer recognition and identification of components in the final product (Pfoertsch and Mueller 2006). in other words, ingredient Branding can be conceptualized as a B2B branding strategy between a manufacturer and a supplier in which the end product of the supplier becomes one of the aspects of the manufacturer's strategic concept (Ervelles et al. …

Is a Designer Only as Good as a Star Who Wears Her Clothes? Examining the Roles of Celebrities as Opinion Leaders for the Diffusion of Fashion in the Us Teen Market

Abstract: INTRODUCTION "A good model can advance fashion by 10 years"--Yves Saint Laurent, 1984 Fashion is an area where interpersonal communications have been found to be highly important in the diffusion of information Additionally, the frequent introduction of new clothing styles each season makes the fashion market a desirable study for diffusion research focusing upon innovativeness (Baumgarten, 1975) According to Rogers (1995,) an innovation is any idea, practice or object perceived as new Fashion is characterized by constant innovations, whether real or perceived that often include small changes from the previous season or year Because fashions are constantly changing, but the fashion changes are not extreme innovations, they can be classified as dynamically continuous innovations (Rogers, 1995) Understanding the diffusion process for fashion therefore is crucial to marketers in the industry since fashion is so dynamic in nature The study of how new (whether real or perceived) fashions gets diffused has been given lots of attention to in the literature (eg Baumgarten (1975), Darden (1972), Darley (1993), Fernie (1997), Hirschman (1978), Kaigler (1978), King (1980), Mitchell (2001), Moore (2000), Reynolds (1973), Sproles and Burns (1994), Summers (1970), Tigert (1980) etc) The results have typically shown that the fashion diffusion process is similar to that of any category, with fashion innovators being the first to try a new style (comprising approximately 25% of the population,) followed by early adopters (comprising approximately 125% of the population) who pick up some of the new styles from innovators If fashion opinion leaders are among this category, then the new look has a greater chance of becoming an established fashion, and of increasing the next category, the early majority, (referred to as mass market consumers by Sproles and Burns (1994)) to make this new style into a full-fledged fashion trend This category of adopters, together with the next category of late fashion followers comprises about 68% of the total adopters Finally, in the last category are the laggards, or fashion isolates who are fairly uninterested in fashion and who comprise the remaining 16% of the population (Sproles and Burns (1994), Hirschman and Adcock, (1978)) As alluded to above, the early adopter category has a tremendous impact on the successful adoption of a fashion by the masses More specifically, the opinion leaders in this category are key members of society that are crucial in disseminating information on the latest fashion trends to the rest of the population Opinion leadership is defined as "the degree to which an individual is able to influence other individual's attitudes or overt behavior informally in a desired way with relative frequency" (Rogers, 1995) If designers can determine who these opinion leaders are, and target them effectively, then the introduction of a particular fashion has a much higher probability of becoming adopted We propose that for the fashion industry, specifically for the teen market, celebrities are key opinion leaders in influencing them to adopt a new style The objective of this paper therefore is to explore the roles of celebrities in the diffusion of fashion amongst teenagers in the United States by examining them as opinion leaders who influence teens to try and ultimately adopt new fashion styles What is Fashion? According to Oscar Wilde, "Fashion is a form of ugliness so intolerable that we have to alter it every 6 months" Fashion is not merely the objects that designers produce, but rather it is a social process that continually modifies the meanings of styles (Sproles and Burns, 1994) More specifically, "fashion is a way of behaving that is temporarily adopted by a discernable proportion of members of a social group as socially appropriate for certain times and situations" (Sproles and Burns, 1994) The term fashion can be broken down into several subcategories: fad, classic, high fashion and mass fashion …

Chinese Consumers' Store Image Formation and Its Impact on Patronage Behavior

Abstract: The researchers explored Chinese consumers' store image perceptions from their free responses and compared the responses with those revealed from structured questions. The qualitative data identified six broad components, some of which contained idiosyncrasies that are unique to Chinese consumers. The quantitative analyses revealed that Chinese consumers' shopping tendencies correlate highly with merchandise and store congeniality. Their average expenditure during each shopping trip is affected by merchandise, service, advertisements, store congeniality and consumers' income. The study can help international retailers better understand the store image attributes that are unique to Chinese consumers and develop an effective retailing mix. INTRODUCTION The Chinese economy has sustained continuous growth, and so has its consumer market. Containing twenty-five percent of the world's population, who most importantly, have money to spend, this market attracts much attention from international retailers. According to National Bureau of Statistics of China, total retail sales of consumer goods reached 15455.4 billion yuan in 2010 (approximately 2.3 trillion in US dollars), an annual growth rate of 14.8 percent after deducting inflation factors. China tripled its total retail sales since 2005 (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2011). In the meantime consumer income has also risen. Per capita disposable income of urban households grew by 7.8 percent in 2010 (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2011). With the rise of the middle class, Chinese consumers also become more sophisticated. Convenience and store layout have replaced price to become the primary motives for shopping (Powers, 2005). On the other hand, various restrictions on foreign investment in the retail sector such as geographical limits and maximum number of outlets were removed. A new measure of foreign investment in the commerce sector has taken effect which allows foreign retailers to establish solely owned foreign retail stores and allows international retailers to enter the secondary and tertiary market (Ness, 2005). As a result, competition has intensified both among foreign retailers (e.g. between Walmart and Carrefour) and between foreign and domestic retailers. Retailers, foreign and domestic alike, must study Chinese consumers carefully to be able to respond to their changing lifestyles and needs with the goal of succeeding in that market (Powers, 2005). This paper examines the perception of store image among Chinese consumers. Store image is one of the key constructs in retail literature. Martineau (1958) called it store personality, which has two components, functional qualities and "an aura of psychological attributes". Previous research has focused on (1) exploring the dimensions or components of store image (Berry, 1969; Darden and Babin, 1994; Kunkel and Berry, 1968; Linquist, 1974/75; Marks, 1976; Zimmer and Golden, 1988), and (2) establishing a conceptual framework or paradigm for the antecedents and consequences of store image (Finn and Louviere, 1996;; Reich, Ferguson, and Weinberger, 1977). However, Hirchman et al. (1978) warn that store image dimensions revealed in one market might not hold true for a second market. This statement was to some degree confirmed when Burt and Carralero-Encinas (2000) found a gap in perception of the store image of an international retailer, Marks and Spencer, between the Spanish and the UK market. In this study, the researchers are interested in the following questions: What store attributes are important to forming a store image among Chinese consumers? How are these attributes derived from Chinese consumers different from the established structure of store image? What information source do the Chinese use to form store image? What impact does the perception of store image have on Chinese consumers ' shopping tendencies and their actual shopping behavior? …

Professional Women's Variety-Seeking Behavior in Fashion Clothing: New York City and London

Abstract: This paper examines the impact of self construal, attention to social comparison information (ATSCI), and conformity motivation on professional career women's variety seeking in fashion clothing choices. An important contribution of this research is the extension of the focus on the relationship between ATSCI and motivation to conform, well beyond previous research findings. A sample of 207 professional women aged 21-50 living in London and New York City were surveyed by online questionnaire. A partial least squares (PLS) path analysis found that interdependent self construal had a strong and positive relationship with ATSCI, which was positively related with motivation to conform. Independent self construal was negatively related to conformity motivation, which in turn, was negatively related to variety-seeking in women's clothing choice behavior. Discussions of findings are also presented to shed some light in professional women's consumer behavior in the area of fashion marketing. Keywords: Variety-seeking in fashion clothing, self construal, attention to social comparison information and clothing conformity INTRODUCTION According to Solomon and Rabolt (2004), fashion is "a form of collective behavior, or a wave of social conformity" (p. 19) and refers to "a style that is accepted by a large group of people at a given time" (p.6). Fashion has been defined by Sproles (1979) as a behavior temporarily adopted by most members of a social group based upon a sense of appropriateness for the time and situation. New culturally integrated styles and behaviors lead to commonly shared experiences within a society that in turn effect changes in cultural variables (Thompson and Haytko, 1997). The modernization process has led to attitudinal changes, enabling consumers to become less critical in their self-evaluations, more open to new ideas, as well as developing positive attitudes toward selfexpression and individuality (Murray, 2002; Thompson and Haytko, 1997). The dissemination of women's attire styles, fashions and brands is now virtually instantaneous rather than sequential (Hamilton, 1997). Fashion styles change quickly (MillerSpillman, Damhorst andMichelman, 2005) and, as a consequence, new meanings attributed to such styles may become inconsistent with the self(Miller, Mclntyre and Mantrala, 1993). Consumers adopt new styles with new meanings in large part in order to maintain coherent identities (Piamphongsant and Mandhachitara, 2008). Fashion clothing has always been a strong reflection of social, cultural identity, and social class membership (Au, Taylor, and Newton, 2000). In postmodern times, multiple styles of fashion clothing may be found in trend during the same period (Hamilton, 1997), for example, short and long skirts may be concurrently "in" (Miller-Spillman et al., 2005). The perennial pants suites still enjoy wide acceptance status among professional women dressers, particularly at work. The global expansion of media companies, particularly women's magazines, facilitates the dissemination of similar fashion information to their target authences on a contemporaneous basis. The Internet has accelerated this process (Maynard, 2004), and at the same time, there has been an increase both in the number of women in the workplace and in those holding higher ranking positions, permitting them to become more individualistic (Arkin and Bentley, 1995; Entwistle, 2000). At a more personal level, other influences that may affect women's fashion clothing behavior include the concept of self-construal, the level of public and social awareness, as well as the motivation to conform to group norms. This study examines women's fashion clothing preference and variety-seeking behavior in dressing styles among female professionals working in New York City and London. In the next section, the relevant literature is reviewed, followed sections relate to research methodology, data analysis and its findings, together with a discussion of the results and managerial contributions. …

A case for customer based brand equity conceptualization within motivational perspective

Abstract: Current class of conceptualizations of customer based brand equity (CBBE) which explains the formation of brand equity on the basis of consumers' cognition and behavior are primarily built on the foundations of associative network theory. This paper identifies that theoretically a stable point estimate of CBBE cannot be derivable using this foundation. Primary objective of this paper is to prove this hypothesis using an experimental design. Thereafter, a case is made for re-looking at CBBE within motivational perspective. Accordingly, need for motivational perspective is outlined and a new definition of CBBE is proposed.

Word-of-Author Advertising in Textbooks: The Role of Brand Familiarity and Placement Repetition on Recall and Recognition

Abstract: This study considers factors that may influence the recall and recognition of word-of-author advertising - the practice of including branded references within a book. Within the domain of WOA advertising in textbooks, our results indicate that the WOA advertising of a familiar firm enjoys an advantage over that of an unfamiliar firm with respect to both recall and recognition. The effect of WOA repetition on recall is moderated by familiarity with the advertised brand. Theoretical and managerial implications are discussed. INTRODUCTION Brand placement in the media of popular culture has burgeoned in recent years, projected to reach over 6.3 billion dollars in spending for 2008 (Education Policy Studies Laboratory 2005). In a Bruce Springsteen music video, Born in the USA, the music is accompanied by visual images of Miller beer. Mountain Dew has been liberally sprinkled throughout movies such as Secret Window, while Aquafma caught attention in the hit movie, National Treasure. References to branded products are not, however, confined to the media of entertainment; brand names and logos have also infiltrated academic textbooks. Indeed, a recent mathematics text contains visual or verbal references to Sony, Spalding, Disney, Warner Bros., Burger King and McDonalds (Hayes, 1999). Friedman (1985, 1986, 1987, 1991) uses the term word-of author advertising (WOA advertising) to describe the appearance of brand names in screenplays, television dramas, novels, lyrics and other "popular cultural products." WOA advertising may be motivated by creative considerations, such as the desire to lend verisimilitude to a drama. In contrast, when WOA advertising results from commercial considerations (i.e., brand owners are charged for a brand's appearance), the practice is considered brand placement (Karrh 1998). WORD-OF-AUTHOR ADVERTISING IN TEXTBOOKS Authors of textbooks often include practical applications of theoretical content; consequently, many texts are replete with WOA advertising. For example, the text Global Marketing Strategies _(1998) contains thirty-two pages that refer to Ford or Ford products, while references to Wal-Mart adorn thirteen pages of the text Electronic Commerce: A Managerial Perspective (2000). Hewlett Packard is featured on eight of the pages of the text Organizational Behavior (1998). Brand names also appear in non-business texts; for instance, Mathematics: Applications and Connections (1999) is sprinkled with references to Sony, Spalding, Disney, Warner Bros., Burger King and McDonalds (Hays 1 999). Extant research has not addressed the potential benefits that might accrue to firms that receive WOA advertising. In the present paper we examine the effects of WOA advertising on consumer memory. Recent research in marketing considers recall and recognition to be measures of explicit memory (Law and Braun 2000, Shapiro and Krishnan 200 1 ). In contrast, implicit memory describes changes in task performance that are induced by exposure to a stimulus without the task performer being able to recollect the exposure episode (Schacter 1987). Thus an implicit memory of an advertising exposure may influence brand choice even when the consumer is unable to recognize the advertiser (Shapiro and Krishnan 2001). Consequently, we consider the impact of WOA advertising on measures of both explicit (advertiser recall and recognition) and implicit (brand choice) memory. Researchers have examined the levels of brand recall and recognition generated by brands placed in movies (Babin & Carder, 1996; Brennan, Dubas & Babin, 1 999; Gupta & Lord, 1 998;) and television programs (Law & Braun, 2000). The extant literature on authence recollections of brand placements in movies has concentrated on the effects of variations in the presentational characteristics of the placement. These presentational characteristics include the mode of placement exposure - audio-visual versus visual-only (Gupta & Lord, 1998; Law & Braun, 2000, Brennan and Babin 2004), the time on-screen (Brennan, Dubas & Babin, 1999), and the relative prominence of the brand-placement (Brennan, Dubas & Babin, 1999; Gupta & Lord, 1998; Law & Braun, 2000). …

Exploring Personal Selling as a Career Option: A Case Study of the Perceptions of African-American Students

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Companies need to build a talented sales force to successfully compete in the marketplace. University graduates provide a rich source for recruiting for entry level sales positions (Terpstra and Sarathy, 1997). Many university graduates start their careers in the sales field and, therefore, there has been a continued interest in measuring students' perceptions of the sales field as a career direction. Stevens and Macintosh (2002-2003) indicate that companies, recruiters and the universities are all interested in this issue (p. 23). A company's interest is fueled by the fact that college students make up a large and attractive pool of job candidates. The recruiters are interested in it because they would like to know the reasons why students are, or are not, attracted to careers in sales. University professors want to know the role that education plays in shaping students' attitudes and perceptions of sales as a career. Considerable research has been conducted to help understand U.S. students' perceptions of personal selling. Historically, students' perceptions of those who practice personal selling have not been positive. It is likely that the negative impression of selling is rooted in anecdotes, stories, novels, stage productions and mass media (Lysonski and Durvasula, 1998). There is scant research on the attitudes of African-American students toward personal selling. The companies may want to create a diverse sales force as part of their human resource policy. They may want their sales force to reflect the diversity in their market or to meet their goal for diversity in their workforce. The purpose of this study is to identify attitudes and interests of African-American students in the professional selling career. How strongly are the African-American students interested in sales careers? What factors affect their attitudes and interest in personal selling as a career? This study investigates these issues using data from one public state university. It also looks at whether there are any differences in the attitude towards a sales career by gender, class rank or having family members in sales profession of the African-American students. LITERATURE REVIEW According to Martin (2005), Caucasian (white) males tend to dominate the field of professional selling (p. 285). Despite the diversity goals of companies, less than five percent of all sales force members, excluding retail positions, are held by African-Americans (Lucas 1996). DelVecchio and Honeycutt (2000) in a study of African-American and white students found that African-American students perceive sales career options as offering a great many important attributes. However, even with these higher ratings, African-American students did not find sales careers attractive. African-American students may well have a negative perception of a sales career for different reasons than those of Caucasian students. Lucas (1996) found trade press indicating that the African-American community takes a dim view of the sales jobs and does not encourage children to pursue sales careers. Alican Kavas (2003) found that students at a historically Black university held a negative image of personal selling as a career option though few differences between business and non-business majors or between men and women students were identified (p. 36). However, DelVecchio and Honeycutt (2000) found no difference between African-American and Caucasian students with regard to their interest in several different sales careers (pp. 49-50). In a follow-up study, DelVecchio and Honeycutt (2002) concluded that "racial group membership does not affect the importance of salary, autonomy, or education in evaluating sales careers (p. 59)." Some information suggests that African-American college students are averse to engage in careers that do not completely use their educational investment (Lucas, 1996). The extent to which certain characteristics differentially affect African-American and white students' perception of the sales career, has not been fully addressed. …

Market Focus in AACSB Member Schools: An Empirical Examination of Market Orientation Balance and Business School Performance

Abstract: This manuscript reports the results of a national survey examining the magnitude and balance of market orientation toward students, parents, and employers of graduates exhibited in AACSB member schools. We reword Narver and Slater's (1990) "market orientation" scale and Jaworski and Kohli's (1993) "overall performance" scale for use within the higher education context. We group respondents into clusters based on their market orientation component scores. Each cluster thus represents a unique combination of market focus (or lack of focus) on students, parents, and employers of graduates typically employed by AACSB member schools. We examine and report magnitude and balance of market orientation toward the three markets, balance of emphasis between the market orientation components, relative emphasis of customer orientation and competitor orientation, and overall business school performance for each cluster. Additionally, we employ t-tests to identify significant differences in overall business school performance exhibited by the clusters. We outline the objectives of the study in terms of research questions, complete the analysis that addresses the questions, and present results and implications. Study limitations and future research directions are provided. INTRODUCTION The Baldrige National Quality Program (BNQP) has established the Baldrige Education Criteria for Performance Excellence for universities and other educational organizations, and includes a "student, stakeholder, and market focus category" (BNQP 2005) among the criteria leading to performance excellence. This particular category of criteria suggests that organizations identify potential market segments and determine which ones to pursue, then take steps to learn "key requirements and changing expectations," build relationships, increase loyalty, and determine satisfaction/dissatisfaction of those student/stakeholder markets. The focus category also emphasizes the importance of strategic decisions regarding the extent that university business schools may choose to focus on particular markets, and the balance of focus between chosen markets. These decisions may obviously contribute to the culture of the school, encouraging or discouraging attentiveness to students and potential students, parents of students, future employers of graduates, and other student/stakeholder markets. Market selection and other applications of marketing theory by practitioners within higher education are appropriate and should certainly be beneficial; Kotier and Levy (1969a, 1969b) argued successfully for broadening the scope of marketing (and the marketing concept) to include higher education as well as other nonbusiness organizations. This manuscript reports the results of an empirical study examining magnitude of focus and balance of focus on three markets (students, parents of students, and employers of graduates) within AACSB-affiliated schools of business. We empirically identify groups (clusters) of schools that exhibit similar focus on market orientation components for the three markets. We report final cluster centers and other information regarding the cluster analysis, then calculate and report mean levels of overall market orientation and performance for each cluster. We also provide percentages reflecting the balance among the components (Narver and Slater 1990), and relative emphasis (between customer and competitor) measures, as described by Slater and Narver (1994). Finally, we examine any differences that may exist in overall business school performance between the clusters. DISCUSSION AND LITERATURE REVIEW BNQP (2005) incorporates behaviors and actions indicative of high levels of market orientation as described in the marketing literature (Jaworski and Kohli 1993; Kohli and Jaworski 1990; Narver and Slater 1990; Slater and Narver 1994) throughout the education criteria for performance excellence. Further, the marketing literature (Barksdale and Darden 1971; Houston 1986; Jaworski and Kohli 1993; Kohli and Jaworski 1990; Narver and Slater 1990; Siguaw, Brown, and Widing 1994) supports assertions by practitioner-oriented publications such as the Baldrige Education Criteria for Performance Excellence (BNQP 2005) that these behaviors and actions result in a greater ability of the organization to achieve its objectives and attain higher levels of performance. …

Consumer Utilization of an Advertising Stimulus: The Effect of the Peel 'N Taste[R] Marketing System on Customer Attitudes, Product Feelings and Likelihood of Purchase

Abstract: Product sampling is often used by marketers to induce product trial, with the hopes this will lead to purchase and product adoption. Sampling of tangible products, though, is an expensive and time-consuming endeavor. Scratch-and-Sniff ads were first used in the 1990s as a surrogate means of product sampling, followed by Peel-and-Taste ads in 2007. This study utilized a sample of female consumers (the targeted recipients of the ads) to allow them to interact with advertising samples using Peel 'n Taste® Marketing System, and measuring various resulting attitudes. Results showed that ratings of flavor pleasantness and the Peel-and-Taste method itself were positive significant predictors of Feelings Toward the Product (FTP), and that FTP and the participant's resulting mood state were positive significant predictors of Likelihood To Purchase (LTP) the product. But an analysis of those who actually tried the Peel-and-Taste samples versus those who opted to not sample them revealed significant differences in both FTP and LTP, as well as evaluative measures of the product, brand and advertising method. It was concluded that, just as with tangible product sampling, if consumers did not use the flavor strip, then product sales are less likely to occur. INTRODUCTION Scratch-and-sniff advertisements appeared in large number in the 1990s, relying on printing technology that made it possible for consumers to interact with a product and a salient attribute in an inexpensive (for the marketer) and non-threatening (for the consumer) manner. In so doing, marketers utilizing this method were effectively seeking to create a surrogate means of product trial. The literature supports the conclusion that a favorable evaluation of scent can result in a transfer to the evaluation of a particular product. Recently, Peel *n Taste® Marketing System advertisements appeared in the media and in mailboxes, utilizing dissolvable flavor strips that purport to allow consumers to sample a product without ever physically interacting with it. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effectiveness of these flavor strips in influencing consumer feelings toward the product as well as likelihood to purchase the product. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Product trial has been show ? to influence the formation of belief and attitudes toward that product. Furthermore, direct experience with the product has been shown to be a much more reliable and powerful predictor of buyer behavior than mere exposure to product advertising alone (Smith & Swinyard 1982; Fazio & Zanna 1978; Smith 1993). Interaction with the physical product, thus, is of greater value than advertising alone; seeing and using are believing. Exposure to advertising alone yields belief strength, intentions to buy, confidence, and attitudes that are not as strong as those recorded when participants are allowed to actually try the product. But what if the advertisement is the product trial? Research has shown that a pleasant scent in an advertisement and a participant's resulting mood state can positively influence attitudes toward the product (Ellen and Bone 1998) and can affect judgments of unrelated focal objects (Isen and Shalker 1982; Petty et al. 1993). While executional cues such as scent (olfactory), pictures (visual), and sound (aural) have been studied and shown to affect physical and emotional states, there is need to study whether taste, particularly in a surrogate form, can likewise influence consumer feelings toward products, and ultimately their likelihood of buying the product. The majority of studies examining product trial have focused on simple easily consumed and functional products such as coffee, soft drinks, and snack foods (Olson and Dover 1979; Smith and Swinyard 1988; Smith 1993). Kempf (1999) and Kempf and Smith (1998) add the notion of trial diagnosticity, which is the perceived usefulness of the trial for forming one's evaluations of the product. …

Developing a Multi-Item Measurement Scale for Developing Teenagers' Involvement in Reality Television

Abstract: The aim of this paper is to develop and confirm a multi-item measurement scale for developing teenagers' involvement in Reality Television. Understanding involvement of teenagers' in RTV so that its role in their consumption behavior can be better understood in important for further theory building in the consumer behavior field. Various researchers have proposed liking, time spent on watching, level of attention provided and audience desire to attend as the domain items for teenagers' media involvement. Using a multi-step process, this research refined and adapted a nine item measurement scale for developing country teenagers' RTV involvement. These were then tested and confirmed using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses techniques. INTRODUCTION Teenagers worldwide are an emerging market segment that is receiving increasing attention from researchers (Bhosale & Gupta, 2006; Lueg & Finney, 2007). Specifically, as a consumer socialisation agent; electronic media receives maximum attention (Dotson & Hyatt, 2005; Vakratsas & Ambler, 1999). Reality Television (RTV) is a contemporary electronic media vehicle. The idea of RTV originated from documentary TV programs and the growth of RTV is still in its early stage (Biressi, 2005; Deziel, 2004; Hill, 2005). Still, RTV has generated a lot of interest among teenagers because of its interesting content (Lundy & Jacobson, 2008). Furthermore, the nature of participants (Jacobs, 2008), format (James, 2007), and reward system (Driscoll, 2007), makes RTV different and exclusive from other TV programs. Understanding the involvement of teenagers' in RTV so that its role in their consumption behaviour in a developing country can be understood is critical for further theory building in the field. It is particularly important due to the huge size of the teenaged market segment and impressive growth of electronic media in developing countries (Bhosale & Gupta, 2006; Quraishi, Bhuiya & Mohammad, 2004). Further, theory building in this area is also important in developing countries, where the population is relatively young. Accordingly, the key problem this research will address is: How to measure developing country teenagers' involvement with reality television (RTV)? INVOLVEMENT WITH MEDIA In media research, involvement pertains to media users' relationships with the message conveyed by media, media personalities, or other media users (Rubin & Step, 1997). To understand involvement, one needs to understand the authence and the role of involvement between media motive and media effects (Perse, 1998). Lin (1993) explained that authence activity is a construct describing authence's involvement when using the media. Activity is mostly manifested in people's media motives, selectivity, and involvement with the message provided by media (Blumer, 1979). Levy and Windhal (1984) focused on three types of activity: a) selective before exposure, b) involvement during exposure, c) and use after exposure. Several researchers have investigated relationships between media motives, involvement, and effects. Perse (1990) found that instrumental viewing motivation positively related to elaboration, whereas ritualistic viewing motivation positively related to engaging in distracting behaviour. Perse (1998) also found instrumental motivation predicted cognitive and affective involvement (e.g., positive reactions) with television viewing. Involvement with RTV The idea of RTV originated from documentary TV programs and the growth of RTV is still in its early stage (Biressi, 2005; Deziel, 2004; Hill, 2005) and not much academic research has been done on it or its effects. On theoretical grounds, cultivation theory suggests that frequent TV viewing increases the likelihood of the adoption of expressed values and beliefs that will ultimately alter teenagers' actual behaviour (Gruber & Thau, 2003). Moreover, intensive TV viewing brings greater changes in values, beliefs, and resulting behaviour. …

Active Adult Communities: A Development of Hypotheses regarding Consumer Attitudes and Preferences

Abstract: This paper presents a preliminary study which is utilized to develop a series of hypotheses regarding the attitudes and preferences of mature adult consumers pertaining to age-qualified active adult communities The exploratory study was conducted among 400 heads of household, 52 years of age or older; residing in the potential draw area for a concept Active Adult Community The areas of hypotheses development include: 1) Target buyer characteristics and information sources, 2) Community design preferences/amenities, 3) Location preferences, 4) Specific product features desired, and 5) Impact of economic conditions on respondents' purchase intentions These hypotheses are presented for future empirical testing INTRODUCTION As the population ages, "the single most important demographic trend in the United States is the changing age structure of the population The post- World War II baby boom produced 78 million baby boomers, born between 1946 and 1964" (Kotier & Armstrong, 2010, p70) In a study conducted by the MetLife Mature Market Institute and the National Association of Home Builders, it is projected that the population of Americans 55+ will increase to 26% of the US population by 2014 from 23% of the population in 2007 (MetLife, 2009, p4) In terms of housing, the demographic trend of an aging society should drive demand for active adult housing in the context of age-qualified communities Many expect "the active adult retirement community (AARC) business to account for between 20 and 30 percent of all housing by the year 2020" (Becker, 2001, p299) Active adult communities are an "antidote to negative stereotypes of older age as a period of decline in physical and social competencies" (McHugh & Larson-Keagy, 2005, p252) However, "marketers must be careful to guard against stereotypes when using age and lifecycle segmentation" (Kotier & Armstrong, 2010, p 194) "The simple fact that the baby boomers are aging does not guarantee that they will behave in the same way as previous generations Research also suggests that the market for retirement housing and long-term care is heterogeneous" (Gibier, Lumpkin & Moschis, 1997, p 119), not all aging adults will seek the same type of living arrangements "People over age 50 are not a homogeneous demographic group and their wants and needs differ" (Cecilian, 2001, pl 19) Even boomers current views on how and where they would like to spend their retirement are not necessarily a reliable indication, "as their attitudes are likely to change as they reach retirement age" (Logan, 2001, p38) In this paper we seek to develop a number of hypotheses regarding age-qualified active adult communities based on a preliminary study The areas of inquiry include: 1) Target buyer characteristics and information sources, 2) Community design preferences/amenities, 3) Location preferences, 4) Specific product features desired, and 5) Impact of economic conditions on respondents' purchase intentions BACKGROUND ACTIVE ADULT COMMUNITIES Adult age-restricted communities have been around in the United States dating back to the 1920' s, when various non-profit organizations acquired property in Florida to establish sponsored supportive living environments for retiring members (Hunt et al, 1984, pl) According to a study by the MetLife Mature Market Institute (2009, p4) the share of Americans 55+, living in age qualified active adult communities is on the rise; those "living in adult agerestricted communities grew from 2% of all US households in 2001 to 3% in 2007" It has been proposed that housing options for the mature market can be viewed "on a continuum starting with independent living choices to assisted living to nursing facilities that provide 24 hour care" (Timmermann, 2006, p23) More formally, based on case studies of 18 retirement communities, Hunt et al (1984) developed a multi-dimensional typology of retirement communities …

The Effects of Source Choice on Word-of-Mouth Communication Influence

Abstract: INTRODUCTION Decades of consumer research has shown Word-of-Mouth Communication (WOMC) to be a powerful influence on consumers' brand attitudes, judgments, and purchase intentions. It is generally more influential than advertising due to its higher credibility and more interactive nature (e.g., Herr, Kardes, & Kim, 1991; Katz & Lazarsfeld, 1955, and Liu, 2006 among many others.) Accordingly, marketers are highly motivated to understand and exploit this powerful information source (e.g., Godes & Mayzlin, 2004). Word-of-Mouth Communication can be generated in many different ways. For example, a consumer may actively seek out product advice from an acquaintance they perceive to be an expert (solicited WOMC). He/she may overhear two unknown consumers discussing a product, store, or service, or he may be given unsolicited (or even unwanted) product information from someone. He/she may read product reviews on a website from complete strangers. It is this organic nature of WOMC that makes it powerful, but also makes it a challenging topic to study. It is clear that these different processes may produce WOMC that is highly variant in its perceived information value and its influence on the consumer. A major goal of the current study is to examine how a choice process leading to WOMC may differ from WOMC coming from a source that was not chosen by the consumer. Another contribution of this study is to extend Kempf & Smith's (1998) trial diagnosticity framework from a product trial context to a WOMC context. These authors found that the power of a product trial in affecting brand attitudes depends on its perceived diagnosticity (information value), perceived validity, and the consumer's perceptions of his/her expertise at processing the trial information. We will use these same three constructs to study the information power of WOMC. Background Literature Research in psychology (e.g., Deci & Ryan, 1985; Averill, 1973) and consumer behavior (e.g., Hui & Bateson, 1991) suggests that people evaluate an experience differently depending on the degree of perceived control they have with respect to the situation. Specifically, past research has shown that individuals having greater control over an experience were more likely to evaluate that experience favorably. Schutz (1967) suggests that a greater feeling of control aids individuals in having satisfactory interactions with their environment. Control, defined as the need to demonstrate one's competence, superiority, and mastery over the environment, is described by Hui & Bateson (1991) as a fundamental driving human force. Based on this notion, Hui & Bateson (1991) proposed, tested, and found empirical support for the idea that consumers rate a service encounter more favorably when they perceive that they have more control over the situation. This finding appears to be consistent with several studies in psychology showing perceived control to have a positive impact on the psychological state of an individual (Szpiler & Epstein, 1976), task performance (Burger, 1987), and physiological well being (Langer & Rodin, 1976). Mills & Krantz (1979) performed an experiment on blood donors in which they manipulated perceived choice by allowing donors to choose which arm they would have blood drawn from (or not), and found that the donors who were allowed to choose had less unpleasant reactions to the experience. One explanation for these findings is that individuals simply derive greater satisfaction from situations when they believe they are able to exert some influence (Bateson, 1985). CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND HYPOTHESES In the current study, we investigate the effects of perceived control, as operationalized by perceived choice, in the context of WOMC. The theory and literature in the area of perceived control and choice suggest that consumers who receive WOMC information from a person they have freely chosen will react differently to that information compared to someone who has simply been given WOMC with no choice process involved. …

Divergent Meaning of Convergent Mobile Phone from Generic Mobile Phone

Abstract: INTRODUCTION In 2009, more than 95% people use mobile phones in Korea. Generic mobile phones became one of the necessities in modern society, replacing cord phones. However, with the arrival of the digital convergence era, there has been a change in the mobile phone market. To increase sales and profit in the matured mobile phone market, handset makers and mobile communication providers competitively introduced convergent mobile phones and services. They tried not only to make the 'pie' bigger but also to take the pie. Therefore, to survive and win the competition, it was required to understand how consumers use the newly introduced convergent mobile phones and services and what are the meaning of the phones and services for consumers. Since the digital convergence era arrived, fusing industries, technologies, and contents (Hanson, 2000), various forms of convergence products are overflowing the market. Convergence products are single products that have the features of two or more separate products (Covell, 2000), for example mobile phones that act as game consoles, cameras, and mp3 players, or the internet TV which is the convergence of TV and internet. The background of convergence expansion can be explained through consumer needs and technology. On the consumer side, consumer needs have varied and changed rapidly and it has become hard for companies to meet the needs, therefore innovation was required. This innovation can be divided into 'innovation as invention', which is creating something that didn't exist, and 'innovation as recombination', which is recombining existing products (Hargadon, 2003). However, since 'innovation as recombination' is less expensive and less risky than 'innovation as invention', convergence based on the 'innovation as recombination' has become popular. On the technological side, the increase of broadband services and microminiaturization became the base for the introduction and expansion of convergence. The generic mobile phones have developed into convergent mobile phones, loading entertainment, commerce, information features in addition to its communication features. Communication features include voice, SMS (Short Message Service) and MMS (Multimedia Message Service), and entertainment features include games, DMB (Digital Multimedia Broadcasting), a digital camera, a camcorder, and an mp3 player. The supported commerce functions are stock trading, transportation card, credit card, and mobile banking, and information functions are scheduling, wireless internet, navigation, etc. Companies are introducing various convergent mobile phones to increase their profit by fulfilling consumers' many needs (Wind & Mohajan, 2002). However, consumers feel a feature fatigue from the excessive functions (Rust, Thompson & Hamilton, 2006) and look for simple generic mobile phones, or are not satisfied by the functions of convergent mobile phones and instead use specialized gadgets. The reason consumers do not show the reactions that companies expect, is because companies do not fully understand the meaning that consumers have of convergent mobile phones, or because convergent mobile phones do not fully apply these meanings. To solve these problems, this article explores the meaning of generic mobile phones and the meaning of convergent mobile phones by analyzing consumers' experiences of generic mobile phones and convergent mobile phones. Also, this article suggests implications about how to make convergent mobile phones to meet consumer needs. For these purposes we chose a phenomenological approach, which is an approach that figures out the fundamental meaning of a phenomenon by analyzing the structural side of consumers' experiences and thoughts (Creswell, 1998) and used an in-depth interview through a FGI (Focus Group Interview). CONCEPTUAL BACKGROUND Connection, Relationship, Personal Space As a social being, people need a healthy relationship, sharing bonds with their important others (e. …

Meeting the Challenge of Marketing Intangibles

Abstract: INTRODUCTION In most developed countries, services account for nearly 70 percent of gross domestic product (Pride and Ferrell, 2010). The overwhelming majority of marketing literature discusses the marketing of goods. The principles of marketing texts might have an entire chapter on the marketing of services. It is usually less coverage than one chapter devoted to this important topic. This paper focuses on the selection of an attorney because it is one of the most important decisions for many consumers and businesses. This research examines the complexity of the decision making process through a review of literature and attempts to analyze the importance of various factors considered in selecting an attorney. These concepts could also be used in selecting a lawn care service, dog walker, roofer, and a multitude of other service providers. The large number of attorneys from which consumers and businesses may choose will often make the decision more difficult. Categorizing the legal issues one has and selecting the attorney based on the firm's expertise is a daunting and complex goal in the selection process. The process of finding an attorney is similar to finding an accountant, banker, or doctor, which would make the findings in this paper applicable to many other service providers. One is looking for expertise and someone with whom one feels comfortable (Rosenberg, 2003). Many studies have been done on how businesses select attorneys. Many business owners find attorneys through referrals, other company owners, accountants, or bankers (Rosenberg, 2003). The majority of research focuses on how businesses select an attorney. This paper focuses on how consumers select an attorney. METHODOLOGY The author administered surveys by means of campus e-mail to the faculty and staff of a mid-sized state university in the Midwest to determine what factors were important in the selection of an attorney. All levels of employees at the university were asked to respond to the survey. There were 1522 surveys sent out and 451 were completed, resulting in a 29 percent response rate. This was intended as a pilot study. A future paper will include a more representative sample of the general population. Respondents were presented with a list of factors that they might have considered in the selection of an attorney. They were instructed to check-off the factors they considered. The list of factors included television commercials, reputation of the attorney, reputation of the law firm, convenient location, attorney is a friend, attorney is a relative, yellow page advertisement, fee structure, referral from another attorney, referral from a bar association, referral from a friend or relative, and the Internet. Further, the respondents were asked to indicate their level of importance to different aspects of selecting an attorney on a scale of 1 to 5 (1 indicates no importance and 5 indicates the highest level of importance). The survey (see Appendix A) measures the importance of reputation of the attorney, reputation of the law firm, location of the law firm, and fees. SURVEY RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The survey results indicated that 38.5% of the respondents considered referral from a friend or relative in the selection of an attorney. Reputation of the attorney came in second place with 33.8%. Reputation of the law firm came in third place with a figure of 23.4%. The attorney is a friend came in fourth place with a score of 14.3%. Convenient location and referral from another attorney tied with 10.4%. Yellow page advertisements were next with 6.9%. Fee structure and attorney is a relative were next with scores of 4.8% and 3.5%. Referral from a bar association and television commercials were tied at 1.3%. The Internet came in last place with less than 1% of the respondents indicating that they used it in the selection process of an attorney. The survey results demonstrate the tremendous importance of word-of-mouth communication because the respondents considered the referral from a friend or relative more than any other factor in the selection of an attorney. …

Applicant Perceptions of the Gender Effect on the Selling Process and on Targeting Prospective Customers: Does Gender Matter?

Abstract: INTRODUCTION In recent years, as more women have joined the sales force, women have proven to be as successful as men in the traditionally male-dominated field of selling; yet they still face some barriers in gaining entry to some selling jobs (Fugate et al., 1988; "Pink Ghetto in Sales," 1988). Some barriers are caused by sales managers' beliefs in gender stereotypes (Kanuk, 1978). Several prior studies (Comer and Jolson, 1991; Russ and McNeily, 1988; Swan and Futrell, 1978; Swan, Rink, Kiser and Martin, 1984) of women in sales suggest that stereotypes of women in selling still exist from both managers and potential customers. A study by Comer and Jolson (1991) showed that, according to sales managers' perceptions, the more a saleswoman's behavior resembles the negative gender stereotype, the less effective her selling performance. The current study examines two fundamental issues: (1) whether negative (or positive) gender stereotypes are predictors of, or even associated with, selling performance, and (2) whether gender similarity/dissimilarity between salespersons and potential buyers impacts sales efforts during the selling process and in targeting efforts in finding new customers. These issues have apparently not been addressed by prior research. The current study could have important managerial implications for recruiting and developing effective sales force training programs and strategies. Prior literature concerning gender effects in the sales field have focused on two main areas: one area of research has examined the effect of gender on interview processes and recruiting outcomes; and another area of research examined the impact of buyer-seller gender on sales performance. Several studies have investigated gender bias during the employment interview and attempted to separate the effects of applicant gender and recruiter gender on recruiters' evaluations (Arvey and Faley, 1988; Powell, 1987). These prior studies produced mixed results concerning the effect of the similarity of applicant gender and recruiter gender on interview outcomes. For example, a study by Graves and Powell (1988) found that applicant gender had no significant effect on the interview outcome; while the results of another study by Graves and Powell (1995) showed that female recruiters saw male applicants as more similar to themselves and more qualified than female applicants. Other research that examined the gender effect in selling has covered such issues as female managers' leadership style (Comer et al., 1995; Yammarino et al., 1997); sex-role identity (Jolson and Comer, 1992); stereotypical behavior and perceptions of gender stereotyping (Comer and Jolson, 1991; Russ and McNeilly, 1988); and professional status (Gable and Reed, 1987). Concerning the gender effect on sales performance, past studies (Crosby, Evan, and Cowles, 1990; Smith, 1998) suggest that gender similarity between sales persons and customers is positively related to the quality of the sales person/customer relationship and sales performance. Crosby et al. (1990) found that same-gender relationships seem to be associated with greater relationship investment, more open communication, and greater trust and satisfaction within relationships. These findings support conventional wisdom that exchange relationships are easier to develop with similar others (Churchill et al., 1997). An earlier study by Churchill et al., (1975) found a significant relationship between visible similarity (i.e., gender, race, age, and nationality) and sales performance. However, other studies (Crosby et al., 1990; Weitz, 1981) suggest that the relationship that exists between dyadic similarity and salesperson performance is weak at best. An empirical study by Dwyer, Orlando, Shephard (1998) showed that female salespeople were just as effective as male salespeople, and gender similarity was not a significant factor in sales performance. In addition, their study found that male-female and female-male mismatched dyads significantly outperformed gender-matched dyads. …

The Effect of Cultural Orientation on Advertising Effectiveness. A Comparison among Americans, Mexican-Americans, and Mexicans

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to investigate the effect that cultural orientation has on advertising effectiveness. The samples are extracted from three different populations: Americans, Mexicans, and Mexican-Americans. A total of 331 usable questionnaires were gathered. Results show that cultural elements in advertising don't have significant impact on advertising effectiveness for neither the American nor the Mexican populations; however, for the Mexican-American population with high Mexican cultural orientation, Mexican cultural elements in advertising have a significant positive effect in advertising effectiveness. INTRODUCTION Cultural and national artifacts or elements have become an important economic and marketing attraction (Edson, 2004). Nations and cultures all over the world are gaining importance, not only for the tourism industry, but for the experiences related to different cultures in which people might live. Indeed, cultures survive as long as they have marketable elements that are attractive to be consumed (Firat, 1995). As members of a community, people have a sense of identification with one or more countries and with one or more cultures (Deshpande et al, 1986; Whittler et al, 1991). The way this sense of identification or belongingness to a community is acquired is beyond the scope of this study; however there is a common believe that this is done by socialization. It is noticeable that we can have more than one citizenship. It is also true that we can identify with more than one culture. The main focus of this paper is to explore how these cultural elements might impact advertising effectiveness. In advertising, culture-related elements have been used extensively. It is common to observe on TV ads the countries' flags, national sport heroes as spokesmen, and other cultural elements, such as traditions and cultural practices. However, there is no formal study in marketing literature where cultural orientation is considered. By considering not only culture, but also cultural orientation, this paper will shed light on the understanding of the use of cultural elements in ads and how different communities that live in the US can be targeted more effectively. We are assuming that Americans have American cultural orientation, and Mexicans have Mexican cultural orientation. For the Mexican-American community, we use scale ARSMA (The Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican- Americans) developed by Cuellar et al. (1995). This scale contains two subscales that measure AOS (American orientation subscale) and MOS (Mexican orientation subscale) of 6 items each. The importance that this study has for marketing is high. For advertisers, the results of this study will give insights about the proper way to use cultural elements in advertising to ensure effectiveness, and for academicians, this study opens a new stream of research on culture and cultural orientation. LITERATURE REVIEW In marketing literature, there has been some research about cross cultural studies related with advertising. For example, Callow and Shiftman (2004) studied print advertising between high and low context cultures. Also the effectiveness of comparative vs. non-comparative advertising has been studied in a cross-cultural settings (Jeon and Beatty, 2002; Shao et al, 2004). Furthermore, there are comparisons between advertising from the US and other countries like Britain (Caillât and Mueller, 1996), Japan (Mueller, 1987), China (Lin, 2001; Zhang and Neelankavil, 1997), and Hispanic/Mexican advertising (Roberts and Hart, 1997). Similarly, cultural studies deal with the national identities reflected in advertising. Examples include Thai identity (Jory, 1999), Canadian identity (Macgregor, 2003), and Russian identity (Morris, 2005). Also, other studies deal with the effect of language, for example Koslow et al (1994) studied the effect of the Spanish language as an important element for identification as Hispanic. …

Human Roles and Communication Strategies of Corporate Identity Performance: Enhancing Global Image, Leadership, and Legacy of a High-Tech Leader

Abstract: This paper proposes a notion of corporate identity as strategic management and marketing performance by individuals, specifically one kind of performance that integrates business goals with philanthropic motivations. The integrative model of corporate identity management posited by Cornelissen and Elving (2003) is distinctive for attempting to "relate corporate identity dimensions to the management processes of deciding on a positioning strategy, and of developing codes of conduct and communication programs, as well as shaping organizational and environmental characteristics". We conducted a survey of the literature on corporate identity, corporate identity management, corporate social responsibility, and communication strategy. We then studied information available on the websites of four information and communication technology leaders; and after several iterations of exploring and learning via navigation of the websites, focused on one organization: Microsoft. This case study research is based on a content analysis of Microsoft's Unlimited Potential's website. Four strategies in Microsoft's corporate identity marketing performance become apparent: global intellectual exchange, story-telling and blogging, training, and partnerships. INTRODUCTION Corporate identity is an important component of corporate-level marketing, which is itself an under-investigated concept within marketing (Mukherjee and He, 2008). New requirements of business growth and product development have created the need for rethinking known approaches to corporate identity, product design, research, distribution, partnership, and even business models. Earlier, many scholars (e.g. Karaosmanoglu and Melewar, 2006) noted that different ways of creating competitive advantage are needed. In addition to opportunities created by newly-opened markets, mergers and acquisitions, more sophisticated consumers, the increase in competition, and crises such as the unraveling of US giants such as Enron, Arthur Anderson, and Tyson Foods also forced companies and governments in the US and around the world to seek a greater understanding of their business and what corporate and social responsibility (CSR) means. Furthermore, for high-technology leaders, their fortunes depend to a large extent on investments in intangible capital - intellectual and marketing assets - different from other industries. Rao (2005) argued that especially for high-tech firms, marketing capital is complementary to intellectual capital (research and development, human resources, and organizational practices); because it is only by creating and sustaining a distinctive corporate identity through difficult-to-imitate marketing strategies that the successful innovators can protect themselves against imitators and the appropriability problem. The objective of this paper is to explore the pursuit and presentation management of a particular corporate identity and its desired effect on the market and strategic behavior of a high-tech leader. Corporate identity is strategically related to marketing at the corporate level by connotatively including marketing's concern with corporate entities in their totality, including networks and partnerships ((Mukherjee and He, 2008). Whereas Mukherjee and He (2008) outlined a conceptual framework that proposes corporate identity as an individual-level perception and having multiple routes that translate it from the minds of their beholders to performance, our paper proposes a notion of corporate identity as strategic management and marketing performance by individuals, specifically one kind of performance that integrates business goals with philanthropic motivations. It is the concept behind the work OLPC is doing with their XO computer. It is the philosophy behind Intel's World Ahead program. Similarly, Microsoft is fulfilling corporate and social responsibility through a variety of approaches that are also creating competitive advantage resources. …

Manufacturers' Representatives: Relationships between Selling Support and Satisfaction

Abstract: Manufacturers may outsource the sales function for their products to manufacturers' representatives on an extended contract basis. These independently owned and operated firms work with several manufacturers by selling a portfolio of noncompeting product lines on a commission basis. An effective relationship with them is important because they are a primary link to customers for the manufacturer. Without appropriate selling support the sales performance desired from the representatives may not be achieved and it is possible that a representative will seek out an arrangement with a more suitable manufacturer. Different types of selling support were examined in this study to determine if the quality of it makes a difference in the representative's satisfaction and if some types of support have a greater impact on the their satisfaction. Hypotheses are advanced for testing the influence of three categories of support. In addition to testing the hypotheses, the relative influence of eight specific types of selling support on representative satisfaction is determined. Findings are discussed and areas for future research are suggested. The author wishes to thank the Manufacturers' Representatives Educational Research Foundation (MRERF) for supporting this research. (ProQuest: ... denotes formulae omitted.) INTRODUCTION Manufacturers may choose to outsource all, or part, of the selling function to independent firms, termed manufacturers' representatives, as a way to reach more customers, thus achieving sales objectives while also having the potential to reduce direct selling expenses. When relying on these firms to fulfill a boundary-spanning role, the manufacturer must provide adequate selling support because it influences a representative's ability to interact effectively with customers, on behalf of the manufacturer. By examining the quality of selling support in relation to the manufacturers' representative satisfaction, this study focuses on an area that has not received much empirical attention. Understanding the influence of support quality on the representative's satisfaction is important because, presumably, the manufacturer desires a long-term relationship with ongoing contract renewals to continue the interfirm relationship. For the remainder of this paper, manufacturers' representatives are referred to as MRs and the manufacturers are called principals, as commonly identified in the literature (Ross, Anderson & Weitz, 1997). Study findings answer these questions: (1) Does the quality of sales support make a difference in the MR' s satisfaction? and (2) Which types of support will have a greater impact on the MR' s satisfaction? Despite practitioner interest in knowing how to interact effectively with representatives, the marketing literature has not fully explored this area of inquiry. Answering the two questions contributes to the marketing literature by explaining whether or not the quality of support matters and which types of support have greater influence on MR satisfaction. Previous literature examined differences between the best and worst manufacturer relationships with representatives (Sibley & Teas, 1979), conceptualized how the firms develop and maintain these relationships (McQuiston, 2001), described different approaches to structuring the relationships (Dishman, 1996) and reported how MRs evaluate principals (Merritt & Newell, 2001). The importance of good interfirm relationships is recognized by these researchers and general factors contributing to their development have been identified (e.g., McQuiston, 200 1 ). With the exception of Brown and Chin (2004), not much research on the effect of principal selling support has been completed even though many principals regularly decide on support to be provided and its quality. They examined principal's support in relation to MR satisfaction with support measured as the MR' s perceptions of principal performance in brand building, lead generation, advertising support, and ability to maintain company awareness among end-customers. …

The Periodization of Marketing: Myth or Reality? Evidence from the Scott Paper Company

Abstract: INTRODUCTION The epochs or eras of history are signified in time by production (1869-1930s), sales (1930s-1950) and the marketing concept post 1950s. The production, sales and marketing three-era phases that conforms to historical periodization derives from Keith's (1960) analysis of the Pillsbury Company founded in 1869. Keith conceived four sequential eras based on his familiarity as an employee with the company since 1935. Particularly germane to this paper is his declaration of a marketing revolution inspired by a consumer orientation occurring only since the 1950s when the marketing era began. After 1960, a fourth era institutionalized a corporate-wide marketing managerial philosophy. These are still perceived as "the received doctrine" especially in marketing textbooks despite the challenge from Hollander (1986, 3) and others. Hollander questioned periodization and identified its ubiquity in a sample of 25 textbooks published between 1980 and 1984. An in-depth analysis of business history proved to him that "The standard chronology does not fit" (1986, 22). Subsequent studies of contemporary texts from 2002 to 2006 indicate that little had changed regarding this categorization of sequential epochal history (Jones and Richardson 2007, 16). Jones and Richardson (2007) consider this periodization a "myth". Given Hollander's (1986) position and considering the two decade lapse and admonitions to reconsider sequential stages, it is surprising that we still find the "myth" perpetuated in many contemporary marketing texts (Jones and Richardson, 2007). One current popular text states: ... marketing thought has evolved through three successive stages of development: product orientation, sales orientation, and market orientation. Our description links each stage with a period of time. But you should understand that these stages depict the general evolution of marketing thought and reflect states of mind as much as they do historical periods. Thus, although many firms have progressed to a market-orientation, some are still mired in a product or sales orientation... (Etzel et al., 2007, 6-7). Following Hollander's (1986), Fullerton's (1988) and Jones and Richardson's (2007) suggestions to correct the record by documenting history, we probe the "myth" of periodization. The paper presents evidence obtained from the J. Walter Thompson Company (JWT) archives to demonstrate early twentieth-century brand strategy that focused on the needs of the consumer, thus questioning the position of sequential development of the marketing concept. The paper begins with a brief review of the origins of the current thinking of marketing periodization. We then probe early consumer-oriented marketing at the J. Walter Thompson Company, and Scott Paper company's toilet tissue campaign that questions the logic of marketing periodization. MARKETING PERIODIZATION The formation of the recent thinking that marketing evolved episodically was heavily influenced by Keith's (1960) Pillsbury case. Keith maintains that it was during the 1950s marketing revolution that "For the first time we began to be highly conscious of the consumer, her wants, and her prejudices, as a key factor in the business equation. We established a commercial research department to provide us with facts about the market" (1960, 36). This observation was based on Pillsbury's growing awareness that selective product differentiation could increase sales. As Director and Executive Vice President at Pillsbury in the refrigeration and grocery products divisions, he observed in the 1950s that the company "faced for the first time the necessity for selecting the best new products. We needed a set of criteria for selecting the kinds of products we would manufacture" (1960, 37). Thus, Pillsbury configured new management under a "marketing department." As Keith describes it, "This department developed the criteria which we would use in developing which products to market. …