Showing papers in "Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly in 1994"
TL;DR: In this paper, the follow-up at age 15 of a group of children who were diagnosed at age 5 as having delayed motor development was reported, and the control group still differed in motor performance 10 years later: 46% of the members of the early motor delay group were classified as different on motor and perceptual tasks.
Abstract: This paper reports the follow-up at age 15 of a group of children who were diagnosed at age 5 as having delayed motor development. The group of children who were clumsy and the control group still differed in motor performance 10 years later: 46% of the members of the early motor delay group were classified as different from the control group on motor and perceptual tasks. The remainder made up an intermediate group that could not be clearly distinguished from the other groups. Adolescents with stable motor problems had fewer social hobbies and pastimes and had lower academic ambitions for their future than the controls, although the lower academic ambitions also reflect their lower academic achievements. The adolescents who were clumsy believed they were less physically and scholastically competent than the controls. However, they did not have poor opinions of their social acceptance or self-worth. The intermediate group, although they showed motor delay at age 5, had good school performance and high amb...
430 citations
TL;DR: The authors examined the social and affective concomitants of clumsiness in children and found that children who are more introverted than children without movement problems, judge themselves to be less competent both physically and socially, and are significantly more anxious.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine the social and affective concomitants of clumsiness in children. The results suggest that children who are clumsy are more introverted than children without movement problems, judge themselves to be less competent both physically and socially, and are significantly more anxious. However, when the relationship between severity of clumsiness and social or affective problems was investigated, only socially negative behavior was shown to be less common in the children who were most severely clumsy. No other aspect of social or affective functioning was related to the degree of clumsiness. Although some patterns were detected among social and affective problems, the overall picture was rather heterogeneous. The implications of the results for development and intervention are discussed.
325 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated whether a group of 80 children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) could be classified into subtypes based on their performances on six perceptuo-motor tasks.
Abstract: Although the heterogeneity of children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) has been well documented, the search for subtypes within the DCD population with distinguishable profiles has been limited. The present study investigated whether a group of 80 children identified as having DCD could be classified into subtypes based on their performances on six perceptuo-motor tasks. Five clusters were identified and are discussed in terms of current understanding of DCD. This exploratory study supports the notion of heterogeneity within DCD samples, with five patterns of dysfunction emerging.
180 citations
TL;DR: The authors found that children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) demonstrate coordination difficulties during the learning of novel motor skills; no previous studies have investigated their ability to learn and then generalize a new movement.
Abstract: Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) demonstrate coordination difficulties during the learning of novel motor skills; no previous studies, however, have investigated their ability to learn and then generalize a new movement. This study compared 24 young children with DCD with 24 age-matched control children (AMC) during the early stages of learning a simple aiming task. Children with DCD were found to perform more poorly than their peers on measures of acquired motor skill, and to react and move more slowly at every level of task performance. The effect of age and its relationship to practice of the task was also different within each group. The groups did not differ, however, in their rate of learning, or in the extent to which they were able to generalize the learned movement. Children with DCD sacrificed more speed than the AMC group when aiming at a small target, but the effects of amplitude and directional changes were quite similar for each group. The implications of these finding...
99 citations
TL;DR: There was a significant relationship between power measured on the Wingate Anaerobic Test and coordination measured by the MAND gross motor score and there was a significantly lower performance on the WAnT than the performance of the controls.
Abstract: Generally, children with coordination problems lack fitness and muscular strength. This study was designed to identify whether these children differed from age-matched controls on measures of anaerobic performance. Twenty-four boys who were poorly coordinated, from three age groups, 7, 8, and 9 years, were compared to 24 coordinated controls (N = 48). The McCarron (1982) Assessment of Neuromuscular Development (MAND) was used to confirm levels of coordination. Anaerobic performance was estimated with the Wingate Anaerobic Test (WAnT) and a 50-m run. The poorly coordinated group’s performance on the WAnT was significantly lower than the performance of the controls for measures of peak power normalized for body weight, absolute and normalized mean power, and the fatigue index. The subjects who were poorly coordinated were also significantly slower performing the 50-m sprint. There was a significant relationship between power measured on the WAnT and coordination measured by the MAND gross motor score. For t...
92 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the psychological well-being of wheelchair sport participants and wheelchair sport nonparticipants was evaluated by considering mood, trait anxiety, self-esteem, mastery, and individual self-perceptions of health and wellbeing.
Abstract: This paper considered (a) the psychological well-being of wheelchair sport participants and wheelchair sport nonparticipants, and (b) the influence of competitive level on the psychological well-being of wheelchair sport participants. Psychological well-being was evaluated by considering mood, trait anxiety, self-esteem, mastery, and individual self-perceptions of health and well-being. Wheelchair sport participants exhibited an iceberg profile of positive well-being with lower tension, depression, anger, and confusion and higher vigor than the sport nonparticipant group. The sport participant group also showed significantly greater levels of mastery and more positive perceptions of their health and well-being than the sport nonparticipant group. International athletes had (a) higher levels of vigor than the national and recreational groups; (b) lower levels of anxiety than the regional and recreational groups; (c) higher levels of self-esteem than the national, regional, and recreational groups; (d) high...
87 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors studied the ability of children to maintain an imposed rhythm in a tapping task and the possible sources of these deficits were discussed. But their results were discussed in relation to three different models of brain dysfunction, including dyslexia, reading and coordination.
Abstract: This study is concerned with deficits in the ability to maintain an imposed rhythm in a tapping task and the possible sources of these deficits. Three groups of children between the ages of 7 and 12 with IQs above 75 participated: a group of children who were clumsy, a group who were dyslexic, and a control group whose reading and coordination were considered age appropriate. The children performed a series of “continuation” tapping tasks in which hand, speed, and rhythm of tapping were manipulated. The performance measure taken was the variability of tapping after the pacing signal had ceased. When the three groups were compared, the children who were clumsy showed a slightly increased variability across all tasks but no sign of lateralized performance differences. In contrast, the children who were dyslexic showed increased variability in only one task, involving the right hand. The results are discussed in relation to three different models of brain dysfunction.
69 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors identify possible subtypes of students with learning disabilities based upon gross motor functions using the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (Bruininks, 1978).
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to identify possible subtypes of students with learning disabilities based upon gross motor functions. Subjects in a private school for learning difficulties were divided into a group of students with learning disabilities and a comparison group. Gross motor subtests from the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (Bruininks, 1978) were administered to both learning-disabled and comparison groups. The four subtypes yielded by the K-means iterative partitioning method demonstrated distinct profiles. Cluster membership was shown to be fairly stable by internal validation techniques. The external validity of the four subtypes was verified by a teacher’s ratings of students’ physical behaviors. It was recommended that the outcome of type-specific remediation and the longitudinal stability of gross motor subtypes be evaluated.
66 citations
TL;DR: This article examined the attitudes of undergraduate students toward the integration of people with disabilities in activity settings and found significant attitudinal differences between the variables of gender, previous experience with disability, and disability classification (physical or learning disability).
Abstract: This study examines, in a comparative context, the attitudes of undergraduate students toward the integration of people with disabilities in activity settings. The Physical Educators’ Attitudes Toward Teaching the Handicapped instrument was used to test preservice physical education undergraduates (N = 371) from universities in England, Denmark, Belgium, and Portugal on attitude variables previously found significant in North American research. Mann-Whitney U analysis revealed significant attitudinal differences between the variables of gender, previous experience with disability, and disability classification (physical or learning disability); between cross-cultural influences of the Belgian sample and the English, Danish, and Portuguese samples; and between the English and the Danish samples.
65 citations
TL;DR: It was concluded that a difference in visual rehearsal strategies may distinguish children who are clumsy from their peers.
Abstract: In order to evaluate the contribution of visual memory to problems in the development of motor coordination, 9- to 13-year-old boys who were clumsy were tested on a graphic reproduction task under two delay conditions. Their performances were compared with those of control children. Individual geometric patterns were presented as a whole or sequentially, and children reproduced these patterns immediately after the inspection period or after a delay of 15 s. There was no difference in the accuracy of the reproductions of the two groups on immediate recall. After the 15-s delay, the reproductions of children who were clumsy were markedly less accurate, whereas those of the control children were unchanged. Although children who were clumsy completed their reproductions more quickly, there was no correlation between their accuracy scores and response duration. It was concluded that a difference in visual rehearsal strategies may distinguish children who are clumsy from their peers.
64 citations
TL;DR: Comprehensive examination with a battery of ophthalmic tests did not reveal any significant difference in visual status between the two groups, and the presence of strabismus appears more likely to be a "hard" neurological sign of central damage common to this group.
Abstract: Developmental coordination disorder (DCD) occurs in a small number of children who present with impaired body/eye coordination. No study of ophthalmic function in DCD exists despite vision’s primary role in perception. Ocular performance was therefore assessed with a battery of tests. Five hundred children aged between 5 and 7 years were involved in the study. Diagnosis of DCD was confirmed for 29 children by the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (ABC); 29 control children were randomly selected. Comprehensive examination with a battery of ophthalmic tests did not reveal any significant difference in visual status between the two groups. Strabismus was found in 5 children from both groups. All 5 children with strabismus from the DCD group showed a similar movement profile with the Motor Competence Checklist. While a causal relationship cannot be discounted, the presence of strabismus appears more likely to be a “hard” neurological sign of central damage common to this group. The evidence seems to i...
TL;DR: The results showed that the children with DCD made movements that were both slower and much more variable than those of their age-matched peers, and the withdrawal of visual information affected both groups of children in similar ways.
Abstract: Are children with developmental coordination disorders (DCD) more dependent on vision for constructing movements than children without DCD? How important is visual feedback of the hand and how important is visual specification of the goal in this respect? These questions were studied in 10 children with DCD, 3 girls and 7 boys, ranging in age between 7 and 16 years. Each child was matched against a child of the same sex and age without DCD. The task was to pick beads, one at a time, from one cup and carry them to another cup. With the aid of a mirror arrangement and a curtain, visual information about the performing hand and the cups and beads was manipulated. The movements were monitored with an optoelectronic device (SELSPOT II). The results showed that the children with DCD made movements that were both slower and much more variable than those of their age-matched peers, The withdrawal of visual information affected both groups of children in similar ways. However, one boy with developmental disorders ...
TL;DR: In this paper, the sport socialization of athletes with disabilities is discussed and three theoretical suggestions are offered to provide such a foundation, together with substantive suggestions for focusing on the themes of institutionalized physic...
Abstract: The subject of this paper is the sport socialization of athletes with disabilities; the object is to contribute to research and praxis through a review of the relevant sociological literature on the subject. The majority of the research, which uses structural-functionalism, is seen as a set of pioneering attempts to generate reliable information. However, the resulting information is too simplistic and theoretically deficient. The minority of the research, which uses interactionism, is seen as complementing the structural-functionalist studies by focusing on different aspects of the socialization experiences of athletes with disabilities. This research is insightful but it is collectively unsystematic. It is concluded that the study of disability sport socialization is in its infancy and is in urgent need of an adequate theoretical foundation. Three theoretical suggestions are offered to provide such a foundation, together with substantive suggestions for focusing on the themes of institutionalized physic...
TL;DR: The usefulness of the Movement ABC Checklist and Test as an assessment instrument is explored in this article, where the data on a sample of 212 7- and 8-year-olds compared favorably with data from the standardized sample in the United Kingdom.
Abstract: This investigation is concerned with the identification and assessment of Singaporean primary school children who have developmental coordination disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 1987). The present study forms part of a larger project concerned with the suitability of currently available assessment techniques and intervention programs for use in Singapore. In this paper the usefulness of the Movement ABC Checklist and Test as an assessment instrument is explored. The data on a sample of 212 7- and 8-year-olds compared favorably with data from the standardized sample in the United Kingdom. Age and gender differences were similar, and the effects of increasing task difficulty within the checklist were generally confirmed. The checklist identified 15.6% of children as having movement problems or being at risk, which was close to the value obtained in the U.K. The Movement ABC Test provided evidence of the validity of this figure as it successfully differentiated the selected children from age-matc...
TL;DR: This article explored the relationship between perceived physical competence and physical awkwardness in an effort to gain further understanding of the effects of motor incompetence on behavior and found that the expected decrease in perceptions of competence associated with increasing severity of awkwardness was present only in third-grade children.
Abstract: This study explored the relationship between perceived physical competence and physical awkwardness in an effort to gain further understanding of the effects of motor incompetence on behavior. Subjects included 195 children in Grades 3 through 6. Multiple regression analysis found that gender, the importance attached to physical competence, and the interaction between severity of awkwardness and grade were significant predictors of perceptions of physical competence. As expected, males reported higher perceptions of physical competence than females. In addition, the higher the rating that subjects attached to the importance of physical competence, the higher their perceptions of physical competence. Investigation of the interaction between severity of awkwardness and grade revealed that the expected decrease in perceptions of competence associated with increasing severity of awkwardness was present only in third-grade children. It is suggested that older awkward children may utilize strategies to maintain...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that the preparation of regular physical educators, who will provide physical activity for the majority of individuals with disabilities, is inadequate, and propose a hierarchical delivery of information that is not only unrelated to other knowledges but often devoid of the viewpoint that knowledge and situations are problematic and socially constr...
Abstract: In preparing for the 21st century, faculty and professional preparation programs must be responsive to the ever-expanding knowledge base in physical education and sport, as well as the shifting economic and social conditions in society. Creative approaches to undergraduate education will be needed. Current curricular approaches in undergraduate physical education programs provide minimal preparation in disability issues for undergraduate students. Since the 1970s, specialists in adapted physical education have been educated and provided with the necessary skills for teaching individuals with disabilities in specialized settings. On the other hand, the preparation of regular physical educators, who will provide physical activity for the majority of individuals with disabilities, is inadequate. Traditional approaches espouse a hierarchical delivery of information that is not only unrelated to other knowledges but often devoid of the viewpoint that knowledge and situations are problematic and socially constr...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors developed a model to guide assessment for physical education planning for integration and inclusion at the school district level and found that teachers' gender, age, education and experience of teaching children with special needs are associated with beliefs about barriers to integration.
Abstract: The purpose was to develop a model to guide assessment for physical education planning for integration and inclusion at the school district level. A secondary goal was to determine if teachers’ gender, age, education, and experience of teaching children with special needs are associated with beliefs about barriers to integration. To test the model, data were collected from physical education specialists and classroom teachers in central Finland. The survey instruments were three scales: (a) Awareness of Individual Differences Survey, (b) Survey of Adapted Physical Education Needs–Finnish modification (SAPEN-F), and (c) Teacher Beliefs About Physical Education Integration Scale. Results indicated that Finnish teachers know they have students with special needs. PE specialists and classroom teachers share many common beliefs about priority needs. Teachers believe that the most important barrier that hinders physical education integration is attitude. The model described herein worked in Finland and is ready...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors assess power output, force application, and kinematics of wheelchair propulsion in peak exercise, nine wheelchair athletes with medical lesion levels of T8 or lower performed a 30-s sprint test on a stationary wheelchair ergometer.
Abstract: To assess power output, force application, and kinematics of wheelchair propulsion in peak exercise, nine wheelchair athletes with medical lesion levels of T8 or lower performed a 30-s sprint test on a stationary wheelchair ergometer. Mean power output, calculated for the right wheel only, was 59.4 ± 8.5 W. The ratio between effective force and total propulsive force was 60 ± 6%. A negative torque around the hand and a not tangentially directed total force accounted for this low effectiveness. Since the subject group was highly trained, their technique was considered to be optimal for the given circumstances. Therefore, athletes who want to improve power output by increasing effectiveness should keep in mind the existence of a nontangential propulsive force and a braking torque applied by the hands onto the hand rim surface. It is likely that both aspects will be influenced by the geometry of the wheelchair, for example, hand rim dimension or seat position.
TL;DR: In this article, the influence of peers as sport socialization agents in the context of wheelchair racing subculture in the United Kingdom is examined, focusing on elite and non-elite peer relationships and the knowledge that is transmitted and exchanged as subcultural responses to wheelchair racing problems.
Abstract: This study examines the influence of peers as sport socialization agents in the context of a wheelchair racing subculture in the United Kingdom. Using participant observation and survey methods the study focuses on elite and nonelite peer relationships–those between nonelite racers, between elite racers, and between elite and nonelite racers–and the knowledge that is transmitted and exchanged as subcultural responses to wheelchair racing problems. Six main interactional socialization contexts are identified: buying a racing wheelchair, British Wheelchair Racing Association training sessions, local training sessions, domestic races, foreign races, and Great Britain national squad training. Within these contexts elite racers socialize their nonelite peers by passing on subcultural solutions to two sets of problems: those that concern the racing chair and those that concern training. The relationship between the individual and the collective is complex, but peers play a major role in the development and tran...
TL;DR: Among nondisabled subjects, the perceived competence and benefits categories were significantly related to adherence, and for those with disabilities, the benefits factor appeared important to their adherence to an active lifestyle, followed by facilities and health barriers.
Abstract: This study was designed to examine adherence to an active lifestyle among individuals with and without physical disabilities. A Likert-type, 32-item survey was developed that contained five factors identified as perceived competence, social support, benefits, health barriers, and facilities barriers. Reliability estimates within factors ranged from .74 to .88. The survey, in its final form, was distributed to 495 individuals enrolled in undergraduate studies. The 203 individuals (141 nondisabled, 62 injured/disabled) who completed the survey constituted the study’s sample (38% male, 62% female). Among nondisabled subjects, the perceived competence and benefits categories were significantly related to adherence. For those with disabilities, the benefits factor appeared important to their adherence to an active lifestyle, followed by facilities and health barriers.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors used fieldwork journals of physical education students who were involved in practicum experiences with people of varying abilities and disabilities to reveal what it is like to come to terms with others and with oneself in the "adapted" teaching learning adventure.
Abstract: The central concern of this paper is how an adapted physical education practicum and the journal writing of that experience affected the lives of the students involved. The paper uses as its resource material the fieldwork journals of physical education students who were involved in practicum experiences with people of varying abilities and disabilities. The stories in the journals disclose something of what it is like to come to terms with others and with oneself in the “adapted” teaching-learning adventure. These disclosures will be presented thematically, the themes describing a journey through an adapted physical education practicum. The thematic composite of this journey is based upon content, critical, and thematic analyses of the data, coupled with the experiences and insights of the student collaborators. The potential for these kinds of experiences in physical education and teacher education is discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors identify critical factors for the selection of a preschool gross motor assessment instrument, including purpose of the assessment, technical adequacy of the tool, non-discriminatory factors, administrative ease, instructional link, and ecological validity of the instrument.
Abstract: Accurate gross motor assessment of preschool children with special needs is necessary for quality intervention. This paper will identify critical factors for the selection of a preschool gross motor assessment instrument. Nine commercially available tools that purport to measure gross motor skill are critiqued, in table form, according to identified criteria. The criteria include purpose of the assessment, technical adequacy of the tool, nondiscriminatory factors, administrative ease, instructional link, and ecological validity of the instrument. Key features within each of the criteria will be used to review and analyze each instrument. This review illustrates that assessment tools vary in their ability to meet the assessment needs of preschool children suspected of having motor delays, and such tools therefore must be carefully selected.
TL;DR: The authors investigated the relationship between goal proximity and performance and found that the short-plus long-term group exhibited the greatest increase in performance, although the longterm group also displayed significant improvements.
Abstract: The purpose of the present investigation was to investigate the relationship between goal proximity and performance. Goal setting was used as a motivational technique for enhancing physical performance of adolescents with behavior disorders. Subjects (N = 80) were randomly assigned to one of two goal-setting conditions: (a) long-term goals and (b) short- plus long-term goals. After a 3-week baseline period, subjects were tested on a 1-min sit-up task once a week for 10 weeks. Results indicated that the short- plus long-term group exhibited the greatest increase in performance, although the long-term group also displayed significant improvements. Results are discussed in reference to Locke and Latham’s (1985) approach to goal setting. In addition, several methodological and theoretical aspects are discussed that are particularly relevant to the use of goal setting with physical activity tasks among persons with disabilities such as behavior disorders.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors evaluated the actual gross movement competencies, as measured by the Test of Gross Motor Development, in obese versus non-obese children and found that QDPE programs offer a "protective" effect for the development of locomotor skills in obese children.
Abstract: The primary purpose of this study was to document the actual gross movement competencies, as measured by the Test of Gross Motor Development, in obese versus nonobese children. A 2 Gender (male, female) × 2 Groups (obese, nonobese) × 2 Age Categories (Grade 1, Grade 4) × 2 Programs (quality daily physical education [QDPE], non-QDPE) completely randomized factorial design was used. A significant three-way interaction effect (Group × Age × Program) was found for the Locomotor Skills subscale, such that the difference in movement competency in locomotor skills between obese and nonobese children increased as children got older if they did not receive QPDE. A significant main program effect was also found for the Object Control Skills subscale, with the QDPE children scoring higher than the non-QDPE children. It appears, then, that QDPE programs offer a “protective” effect for the development of locomotor skills in obese children. Implications of these findings are discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present guidelines for teaching task-analyzed gross motor skills to individuals with severe intellectual disabilities based on a review of the constant time delay procedure reported in the special education literature and current research being conducted by the authors.
Abstract: It is imperative that teachers utilize effective and efficient instructional strategies to teach task-analyzed gross motor skills in physical education activities to individuals with severe disabilities. The purpose of this paper is to describe the constant time delay procedure, which has been shown to be effective in teaching task-analyzed fine motor skills in daily living and safety activities. In this article, guidelines are presented for teaching task-analyzed gross motor skills to individuals with severe intellectual disabilities. These guidelines are based on a review of the constant time delay procedure reported in the special education literature and current research being conducted by the authors.
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of contextual interference on motor skill acquisition and retention were examined in 24 subjects with mild mental retardation and 24 chronologically age-matched subjects (mean age 13.9 years) with no disabilities.
Abstract: The effects of contextual interference on motor skill acquisition and retention were examined in 24 subjects (mean age 13.9 years) with mild mental retardation and 24 chronologically age-matched subjects (mean age 13.11 years) with no disabilities. Subjects from each group were assigned randomly to either a blocked or a random practice schedule. All subjects performed 15 practice trials for each of three different beanbag throwing tasks, 45 trials total. Following a 10-min filled retention interval, 2 trials of each throw (6 total) were performed in a random order by all subjects. Accuracy scores were measured as absolute error from the target. The data revealed a significant interaction between ability groups and practice schedule. Post hoc analyses revealed that the retention scores of the mildly mentally handicapped subjects practicing under blocked conditions were significantly less accurate than scores of any of the other three acquisition groups. Significant effects in variable error retention score...
TL;DR: The congruence between at-risk BMI and two other obesity parameters (height-weight and percent body fat) in a population of adults with MR is consistent with previous studies.
Abstract: A body mass index (BMI) greater than 27 has been cited as a risk factor for heart disease and diabetes mellitus resulting from excess weight. The purpose of this study was to determine the association between BMI (>27) and two other obesity indices–height-weight and percent body fat–as well as to investigate the relationship between BMI and three blood lipid parameters–total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) in 329 adults with mental retardation (MR). Males were significantly taller and heavier than females, but females had a significantly higher BMI. Kendall’s Tau-C revealed a significant association between BMI and each of the following: height-weight, percent body fat, LDL-C, and HDL-C. However, there were a significant number of false negatives and false positives on each of the criteria. The congruence between at-risk BMI and two other obesity parameters (height-weight and percent body fat) in a population of adults with MR is n...
TL;DR: A modified version of Fog's clip-pinching task developed by Todor and Lazarus (1986) was used to assess associated movement or motor overflow in children with and without learning disabilities as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: A modified version of Fog’s clip-pinching task developed by Todor and Lazarus (1986) was used to assess associated movement or motor overflow in children with and without learning disabilities (LD). Children with LD as a group displayed greater overflow at all levels of active limb force than their age-equivalent nondisabled peers. Children with LD who also have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder were variable in their ability to consciously inhibit overflow while children with LD without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder were able to override overflow given verbal cues to do so. Results indicate that children with LD, as a group, tend to be more affected by the force output requirement of this task due to other factors such as attention and inhibition that differ in degree from nondisabled age-matched control subjects, or at least that persist for a longer period of time in development. The degree to which the regulation of attention interacts with the regulation of force differs for the two...