Showing papers in "Administrative Science Quarterly in 1962"

Sources of Power of Lower Participants in Complex Organizations

Abstract: This paper explores various factors that account for the power of secretaries, hospital attendants, prison inmates, and other lower participants within organizations. Power is seen as resulting from access to and control over persons, information, and instrumentalities. Among the variables discussed affecting power are normative definitions, perception of legitimacy, exchange, and coalitions. Personal attributes related to power include commitment, effort, interest, willingness to use power, skills, and attractiveneses. Finally, various attributes of social structure are discussed which also help to account for the power of lower participants: time spent in the organization, centrality of position, duality of power structures, and replaceability of persons.' David Mechanic is assistant professor of sociology, Department of Sociology, University of Wisconsin.

Interorganizational Analysis: A Hypothesis on Co-ordinating Agencies

Abstract: Interorganizational analysis suggests the structural requisites for maintaining socially approved conflict while traditional organizational analysis suggests requisites for socially approved states of harmony. A theory of interorganizational co-ordination is presented, based on (1) organizational interdependence, (2) level of organization awareness, (3) standardization of organizational activities, and (4) number of organizations. The power of this theory is illustrated by showing that nine presumably discrete problems of social welfare co-ordination are all variations of these same four factors.' Eugene Litwak is associate professor of social welfare research, University of Michigan, and Lydia F. Hylton is research associate, Child Welfare League of America.

Control in Organizations: Individual Adjustment and Organizational Performance

Abstract: This analysis focuses upon the control aspects of organizations. Organizations are characterized as orderly arrangements of individual human interactions, in which control is an essential ingredient. A major assumption is that the total amount of control or influence in an organization is not a constant, fixed amount but that it may vary. Increasing the influence of one group (e.g., the workers) in an organization does not necessarily imply decreasing that of others (e.g., supervisors and managers). Some evidence is presented to suggest that increased control exercised by all levels of the organization hierarchy is associated with increased organizational effectiveness. A relatively high level of total control may reflect increased participation and mutual influence throughout the organization and a greater degree of integration of all members. This is likely to result in the enhancement of ego-involvement, identification, motivation, and job satisfaction of members. Some of the psychological costs of increased control and responsibility on the part of workers and management are noted. Arnold S. Tannenbaum is program director, Survey Research Center, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan.

Tactics of lateral relationship : the purchasing agent

Abstract: On the basis of field interviews and questionnaires from a sample of 142 purchasing agents in different firms, the author finds that the work behavior of the agents is strongly influenced by "lateral" negotiations. The relationship between the purchasing department and other departments in the organization, particularly engineering and scheduling, cannot be understood in terms of traditional, "vertical" supervisorsubordinate or line-staff concepts. Instead, the typical work-flow relationship involves much more than the giving of advice or the application of hierarchical authority. The ambitious purchasing agent skillfully uses formal and informal techniques in order to influence the terms of the requisitions that he receives. Thus he introduces a two-way work flow and in this way raises his own status. George Strauss is professor of business administration, University of California, Berkeley.

Intraorganizational Structural Variation: Application of the Bureaucratic Model

Abstract: Variations in structure within organizations were studied using the bureaucratic model. It was demonstrated that organizational segments, both vertical and horizontal, varied significantly in their degree of bureaucratization. This variation existed along six selected dimensions of bureaucracy, which were measured by questionnaires completed by employees. The type of task performed by the organizational segment was found to be an important determinant of the variation. It was suggested that the use of the bureaucratic model in this manner simplifies the approach to intraorganizational variation. Richard H. Hall is instructor, Department of Sociology, Indiana University.

Perceptions of Organizational Authority: A Comparative Analysis

Abstract: This paper argues that the bases of formal authority-legitimacy and position-need to be distinguished from sources of functional authority-technical competence and human relations skills-which support and often compete with formal authority. Four analytical types of authority relations are developed from the literature and the examination of superior-subordinate relationships among seventysix of the seventy-seven members of three public service organizations. In all three organizations, but particularly among welfare workers, considerable importance was attributed to legitimacy and position as bases of authority. Police officers, however, singled out authority of person more frequently than either authority inherent in position or authority derived from superiors. Welfare organization members attached more importance to legitimacy and position than to technical competence and experience as sources of authority. School employees stressed professional competence as a base of authority much more than either police officers or welfare workers. Robert L. Peabody is assistant professor of political science, Johns Hopkins University.

Power Balance and Staff Conflict in Correctional Institutions

Abstract: As a part of a larger study of correctional institutions for juvenile delinquents, an attempt was made to account for the level and patterns of staff conflict in five institutions. Analysis reveals that the level of conflict is lowest in the most custodial institutions, and is higher in institutions with mixed goals or predominantly treatment goals. The pattern of staff conflict is found to be linked to the power balance in the institution, the degree of divergent perspectives among groups, and the amount of interdependence and intercommunication among groups. Since custodial and treatment institutions allocate power among cottage parents and social service workers differently, the patterns of conflict are also linked to institutional goals. Some implications of continuous problem solving and high conflict for organizational operation are discussed. Mayer N. Zald is assistant professor of sociology, University of Chicago.

Supervisory Methods and Group Performance Norms

Abstract: What kind of organizational conditions encourage work groups to be concerned about performing efficiently? This paper examines some of the determinants of group performance norms in an industrial firm. Encouragement of efficiency and attempts by the foreman to obtain rewards for subordinates together are associated with high performance norms, but each alone has a negative effect on performance. Close supervision is found, in seeming contradiction to previous studies, to facilitate high performance norms. Reward for efficiency and strong group cohesiveness have the best effects when supervision is close. The conditions under which close supervision is effective and ineffective are discussed.' Martin Patchen is study director, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan.

Changing Small-Group Communication Networks

Abstract: In a series of small-group communication network studies using the Bavelas-Leavitt procedure the following observations were made: (1) Groups continued to learn over longer periods than previous studies of periods of shorter duration had revealed. (2) Differences in antecedent network experiences led to differences in efficiency, organization, and satisfaction in identical subsequent networks. (3) More efficient problem-solving systems were developed, the more groups tried to understand their network structure, and the more they eliminated redundant organizational planning behavior; changes in satisfactions occurred when changes in positions involved issues of promotion and demotion. (4) The opportunity to have elections led to greater continuity of leadership when networks were changed. (5) A model comprising assertions about human response tendencies and network properties was useful for predicting the effects of changes. (6) A prediction regarding the effects of past experience based on the model was confirmed.' Arthur M. Cohen is assistant professor of behavioral sciences in the Department of Management, Case Institute of Technology.

The Prediction of Administrative Role Conflict Resolutions

Abstract: Seventy-seven administrators were asked to describe typical on-the-job role conflicts. In addition, common structured conflicts were formulated by the researchers and presented to the administrators. Two groups of business managers, one group of training directors, and one group of labor leaders composed the sample. The central hypothesis states: The decisions of administrators confronted with role conflicts can be predicted with a high degree of accuracy if their perceptions of legitimacy and sanctions are given. In each conflict situation, where two opposing claimants were urging him to do their bidding, the administrator was asked whether he considered each request or order from 'the claimants as "right and reasonable" (legitimate). He was also asked what he thought would happen to him if he complied with either claim and failed to produce a successful result (sanction). Four possible actions were set forth: comply with A's request, comply with B's request, compromise, or avoid. An over-all predictive accuracy of 71 per cent was discovered for *the type of action taken by the administrators. Delbert Miller is professor, Department of Sociology, and Fremont A. Shull, Jr., is assistant professor, Department of Management, Indiana University.

Symbolic and Substantive Evaluative Research

Abstract: A study of professional employees in two large treatment-oriented organizations reveals a contradiction between the avowed objectives of program research and the acceptance of its findings by those engaged in the program.1 The ideology of science, which favors the interpretation and communication of research results, often conflicts with organizational mores. These mores favor symbolic research-the ritualistic avowal of the worthwhileness of research about agency problems, coupled with objections to its substance-the advancement of knowledge. Even those expressing a high priority for the use of agency funds or staff time to do research were reluctant to interpret or publish research findings. Interpretation readiness was greater for "encouraging findings" than for "discouraging findings." Only a minority expressed an attitude favorable to taking the risks which are believed to exist when information with evaluative implications is widely disseminated. Joseph W. Eaton is professor of social work research and sociology, University of Pittsburgh.

Organizational Change in Growing Enterprises

Abstract: This is a report and discussion of an inquiry concerning change in thirty companies in southern California. The two special subjects of interest are the extent of administrative adaptations to growth in operations and the extent to which associated changes were explicitly introduced. The results indicate a high incidence of "paper" changes in administrative arrangements. Of greater interest is the suggestion that adaptation was not clearly better in the case of companies which explicitly introduced organization changes than it was for companies which did not. A number of implications of both theoretical and practical significance follow, among them the notion of relying in the future more on "built-in" mechanisms for organizational change rather than on ad hoc solutions. James E. McNulty is associate professor, Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania.

Bases of Authority in Legislative Bodies: A Comparative Analysis

Abstract: This study assumes that the authority of leaders in legislative bodies must rest on bases other than their formal position alone. It compares legislative leaders and rank-and-file members in four American state legislatures in terms of three criteria-respect, affection, and expertise. These values, it appears, are attributed to leaders and members in different degrees, but expertise in a particular area of specialization does not seem to be a highly valued requisite of leadership. Moreover, a group of "challengers" seems to compete with the leaders for their fellow members' affection and respect and may constitute a reserve of future leaders. However, the leaders here studied still maintain their favored position, especially in regard to the attribution of respect. The study concludes that their being attributed preferred characteristics more frequently than other members is perhaps a necessary, though not a sufficient, condition for the effective exercise of legislative leaders' formal authority. Heinz Eulau is professor of political science, Stanford University.

Due Process of Law in Military and Industrial Organizations

Abstract: The right to appeal a superior's decision is conceptualized as one of a complex of norms subsumed under the constitutional doctrine of "procedural due process." The Inspector General complaint system of the United States Army is examined in terms of this concept. The obstacles to implementation of this system are found to be structural and attitudinal. Attitudes toward the IG system are examined with the aid of documentary, survey, and informant data. The IG complaint system is compared with the grievance procedure provided by collective bargaining agreements in industrial organizations. It appears that the norms of due process are more institutionalized but are less internalized in the Army than in industrial organizations. This conclusion suggests the utility of comparing formal organizations on scales of institutionalization and internalization of norms of due process.1 William M. Evan is associate professor of sociology and industrial management, School of Industrial Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Differential Displacement of Treatment Goals in a Mental Hospital

Abstract: In this field study the displacement of treatment goals in a mental hospital is described as it varies with different wards and different shifts. The degree of displacement is then related to characteristics of the wards and shifts, generating hypotheses about the determinants of goal displacement in social groups. Three determinants are discussed: characteristics of the goals themselves; amount of regulation of staff behavior by outside groups; and the availability of role imagery to structure staff-inmate contacts. Thomas J. Scheff is assistant professor, Department of Sociology, University of Wisconsin.

Authoritarianism and Effective Indoctrination: A Case Study

Abstract: Although all organizations strive to maximize the commitment of their members to the official ideology and programs of operation, few attain complete success. It was hypothesized that a major determinant of the effectiveness of indoctrination in prison was the strength of the authoritarian predispositions of the inmates, the stronger their authoritarianism the greater their propensity to accept the official policies and programs of the organization. Two factors were seen as affecting this relationship, the nature of the authority structure and the type of inmate subculture. The traditional prison presents a pattern of these elements which contrast sharply with that of the treatmentoriented institution. Data collected in a small treatment-oriented prison camp supported the hypothesis.' Oscar Grusky is assistant professor of sociology, University of California, Los Angeles.