Showing papers in "American Antiquity in 1980"

Willow Smoke and Dogs’ Tails: Hunter-Gatherer Settlement Systems and Archaeological Site Formation

Abstract: Hunter-gatherer subsistence-settlement strategies are discussed in terms of differing organizational components, "mapping-on" and "logistics," and the consequences of each for archaeological intersite variability are discussed. It is further suggested that the differing strategies are responsive to different security problems presented by the environments in which hunter-gatherers live. Therefore, given the beginnings of a theory of adaptation, it is possible to anticipate both differences in settlement-subsistence strategies and patterning in the archaeological record through a more detailed knowledge of the distribution of environmental variables.

In Small Things Forgotten, The Archaeology of Early American Life

Abstract: History is recorded in many ways. According to author James Deetz, the past can be seen most fully by studying the small things so often forgotten. Objects such as doorways, gravestones, musical instruments, and even shards of pottery fill in the cracks between large historical events and depict the intricacies of daily life. In his completely revised and expanded edition of In Small Things Forgotten, Deetz has added new sections that more fully acknowledge the presence of women and African Americans in Colonial America. New interpretations of archaeological finds detail how minorities influenced and were affected by the development of the Anglo-American tradition in the years following the settlers' arrival in Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1620. Among Deetz's observations: Subtle changes in building long before the Revolutionary War hinted at the growing independence of the American colonies and their desire to be less like the British. Records of estate auctions show that many households in Colonial America contained only one chair--underscoring the patriarchal nature of the early American family. All other members of the household sat on stools or the floor. The excavation of a tiny community of freed slaves in Massachusetts reveals evidence of the transplantation of African culture to North America. Simultaneously a study of American life and an explanation of how American life is studied, In Small Things Forgotten, through the everyday details of ordinary living, colorfully depicts a world hundreds of years in the past.

Archaeology and the image of the american indian

Abstract: Archaeologists have treated American native peoples in a detached and somewhat pejorative fashion. In an attempt to explain this treatment, the development of American archaeology is examined in relation to changing views of native peoples that archaeologists have held. In the nineteenth century, native peoples were regarded as unprogressive savages, a view reflected in the "Mound Builder" myth, which held that the spectacular earthworks which were then the object of considerable antiquarian interest were the work of nonIndians. In the first half of the twentieth century, given a declining interest in the functional interpretation of archaeological data and a loosening of ties with ethnography, there was even less concern with native peoples. The New Archaeology continues to treat native peoples as objects rather than subjects of research. It is suggested that greater concern with Indian and Eskimo history might help to correct this. IN THIS PAPER, I will argue that the most important single factor that has shaped the long-term development of American archaeology has been the traditional Euroamerican stereotype which portrayed America's native peoples as being inherently unprogressive. I will attempt to demonstrate how the influence of this stereotype has caused American archaeology to develop in a fundamentally different manner from European archaeology, which from its beginning was preoccupied with affirming that continuous cultural progress characterized that continent in prehistoric as well as historic times. I do not deny that American archaeologists have been familiar with ethnological research concerning native peoples and that at certain periods ethnological conclusions represented a marked improvement on popular stereotypes. It appears, however, that because of thlate relative lack of direct contact between archaeologists and native peoples, popular stereotypes have influenced archaeologists more than they have influenced ethnologists. While I feel that the extreme view that "truth is determined by the cultural context in which it exists" (Fitting 1973:289-290) fails to take account of the long-term accomplishments of prehistoric archaeology, I accept that the problems social scientists choose to research and (hopefully less often) the conclusions that they reach are influenced in various ways and sometimes to a highly significant degree by t tt the attitudes and opinions that are prevalent in the societies in which they live (Darnell 1971:85). For this very reason, current prejudices may influence the perceptions that archaeologists have of their discipline's past. In any treatment of intellectual history, it is easy to ignore minority opinions or to select data to produce a biased view of past realities. Conversely, when the conclusions that emerge from such studies seem unpleasant or controversial, it is tempting to dismiss them as being unrepresentative or polemical. Yet, the variety of views that have been held simultaneously at any particular time in the past should not lead us to ignore the

Spiral Fractures and Bone Pseudotools At Paleontological Sites

Abstract: Spiral ("green bone") breakage has been suggested as an indicator of human activity by some workers. Our examination of broken ungulate long bones from six paleontological localities in western Nebraska, however, shows that such fractures commonly occurred in the Miocene and Pliocene, long before the advent of man in North America. Pseudotools also occur frequently in these sites. We postulate that spiral breakage, including the production of pseudotools, may be due to trampling by animals. Our study demonstrates that neither spiral breakage nor gross morphology, alone or in combination, is diagnostic of human activity. Problematical examples must be accepted or rejected wholly upon the basis of patterned wear on the supposed tools.

Shape of Time: Some Political Implications of a Four-Part Figure

Abstract: Four-part figures equal cyclic completion in ancient Mesoamerica, but they do not necessarily correspond to the cardinal directions; they refer, rather, to four-place cycles within the apparent annual path of the sun. The earliest excavated Maya example of such a quadripartite diagram in architectural form is Structure E-VII Sub at Uaxactun, which was part of a solar observatory. Later this E Group at Uaxactun was used for katun celebration. It is suggested that in Early Classic times Mexicans introduced to central Peten a type of celebration of solar cycles observed at Teotihuacan. This new ritual was rapidly Mayanized and institutionalized as the celebration of katuns or 20-year periods. The iconography of katun celebration emphasizes quadripartition and the rainy, stormy sky symbolism of the agricultural year as expressed in Tlaloc ritual at Teotihuacan. Katun celebration probably also served to undermine the original dynastic significance of the ancient Maya Long Count and thus enhanced the public ritual role of the new Mexican elite.

Discard Location: The Ethnographic Data

Abstract: Site formation processes must be understood before the goals of archaeology can be attained. Modern and historical populations are examined here to construct a partial model of discard behavior, one formation process. Findings indicate that both sedentary and migratory populations discard materials outside their use location and that only some migratory peoples discard material elements at their use location.

A comparative study of basic edge angle measurement techniques

Abstract: Four methods of edge angle measurements, including one developed by the authors, are applied to a sample of unretouched flakes in order to determine their relative accuracy, reliability, and economy. The authors discuss various statistical analyses which are available and essential in evaluating the significance of variability between and within the different measuring techniques, applying them to the results obtained from this study. Before the actual analysis of lithic materials begins, archaeologists are faced with two problems. The first is to choose from among the almost infinite number of possible variables those which are to be recorded for analysis, and the second is to choose the particular methods for their measurement. Of course, the choice of certain variables depends entirely on the research interests of the investigator. But recently there have been a number of studies focusing on the edge angles of stone artifacts (Wilmsen 1970; Gould et al. 1971; Tringham et al. 1974), and it seems that this variable may be important for understanding at least certain aspects of prehistoric behavior. Because several different techniques have been devised for taking this measurement, the second problem, that of choosing which method to use, becomes more important. In this paper we introduce yet another method for measuring edge angles. Going one step further, an attempt is made to objectively determine through statistical comparisons the relative accuracy, reliability, and economy of each method. At this time we are not interested in discussing the significance or interpretation of edge angle variability; our present aim is to evaluate some of the methods currently available so that future workers will be better able to choose the particular one they wish to use.

Raw Materials Source Areas and “Curated” Tool Assemblages

Abstract: This essay focuses on archaeological excavations at a lithic source area in the White Mountains of northern New Hampshire, but the discoveries there have broader implications for ancient mines and quarries and for raw materials source areas in general. Workshops at lithic sources may contain a greater range of tool forms than other types of archaeological sites, and assemblages from workshops have a high interpretive value. The identities of raw materials have always interested archaeologists, and attribution of artifacts to specific sources has been a central concern in discussing exchange networks and population movements. Ancient mines and quarries are routinely sampled in the hope that physical and chemical tests will aid the naked eye in characterizing raw materials. Much energy is devoted to the study of ores, flakable stones, and semiprecious rocks and minerals, but scant attention is paid to the record of human activity at the sources themselves. To put it another way, raw material sources are usually thought to be sites not worth excavating. This mistaken belief is based on the impression that workshops yield monotonous artifact assemblages which are of little use except in understanding extractive and processing industries. Research strategies that focus on settlement pattern ignore raw materials source areas under the assumption that they were visited only as the need arose, and then but for brief periods. Students of metal-using cultures, however, are aware that mining of ores, smelting, and forging demand heavy investments of capital and require seasonal or permanent residence at mines and workshops. Sources of stones, being relatively more common than ore bodies and more easily exploited, are rarely viewed as scarce resources dictating the movements of ancient groups. A clear distinction must be made between research investigations that include the excavation of raw material sources and those that treat the movement of stones and ores and their appearance in archaeological contexts. Investigations of the latter category have generated important implications for regional prehistories (e.g., Renfrew and Dixon 1966; Ericson 1977; Rathje 1972; Sidrys 1976). Excavations at raw material sources designed to probe technological processes as well as the magnitude and duration of extractive industries are much rarer but nevertheless interesting (e.g., Bisson and Horne 1974; Mills 1922; Ritchie and Funk 1973). In actual fact, the excavation of sites at lithic sources has progressed little beyond the accomplishments of Holmes (1919), who explored and mapped several mines and quarries in North America and Mexico. Since Holmes' day there have been numerous reconnaissances of sources and attempts at collecting systematically from the surfaces of workshops and quarry dumps (e.g., Singer and Ericson 1977). The sheer size of raw materials sources plus the widely held assumption that these localities contain nothing but imperfect implements, exhausted cores, debitage, and quarrying tools have discouraged long-term inquiries. It is argued here that when raw material source areas, or at least sources of stone, are systematically explored, tool kits may be discovered that are not duplicated at task-specific sites and residential locations. Workshops may harbor evidence of population movement and the dura-

Toward a more behavioral approach to archaeological lithic concentrations

Abstract: The argument is presented here that lithic artifact assemblages can be made to yield considerable information on prehistoric behavior patterns, often despite a lack of associated organic material. To illustrate this point, an example has been taken from the Mesolithic settlement of Bergumermeer in the northern Netherlands, from which only prehistoric ground features, stone, and small bits of carbonized remains have been preserved. Proceeding from a functional use-wear analysis of the collection, a four-stage analytical procedure was instituted, employing ethnographically derived models of seasonality, expected resource exploitation, and hunter-gatherer population parameters. This structure enabled the author to provide estimates of several aspects of the prehistoric behavior of the Mesolithic group, including activities, methods of tool prehension, tool use-life and discard rate, number of animals exploited, population of the settlement, and minimum duration of occupation.

Cucurbits From Phillips Spring: New Evidence and Interpretations

Abstract: Excavations conducted since Chomko's initial discovery in 1974 of Cucurbita pepo seeds have clarified their stratigraphic and radiometric context as well as delineated an earlier archaeological unit, the Squash and Gourd Zone, where a second cucurbit, Lagenaria siceraria, was found. The two units are Late Archaic with dates (weighted averages of radiocarbon assays) of 4257 ± 39 and 3928 ± 41 radiocarbon years B.P., respectively, and are beneath stratigraphically superior Late Archaic and Woodland units also containing cucurbits. A comparison of the early Cucurbita pepo with others from later contexts demonstrates an increasing size with time and morphology similar between the early seeds and the historic cultivar "Mandan." Nutritional value of the cucurbits, both cultigens, may have been comparable to that of other wild plant foods consumed. In any event, the cucurbits are artifacts of regional exchange mechanisms operating some 4000 years ago; the most plausible mechanism being down-the-line exchange.

A statistical examination of settlement patterns at tikal, guatemala

Abstract: The widely applied concentric zonation model for Classic period Maya centers, which specifies that highranking persons lived closer to the central civic-ceremonial precinct than low-ranking persons, is tested for the site of Tikal. Our method is to identify residential units from the Carr and Hazard (1961) Tikal maps and to compute labor investment costs of construction of residential units from variables derived exclusively from the cartographic data. Our finding is that the Tikal data do not substantiate the concentric zonation model.

Disembedded Capitals Reconsidered

Abstract: The concept of a disembedded capital is viewed as a specious construct. The logical foundations of disembeddedness of political authority from local commerical hierarchies are viewed as largely untenable, at least in prehispanic Mesoamerica, and the close parallels between Monte Alban and Teotihuacan in terms of general site location, access to prime agricultural land, level of craft specialization required to meet local needs, and local market patterns suggest that both sites had similar roles with respect to local central-place support hierarchies. An alternative evolutionary model is then offered, one which relates developments manifest in the Basin of Mexico and in the Valley of Oaxaca to an economic and political strategy which seeks to minimize labor input and amount of systemic risk.

An Objective Test of the Effects of Heat Treatment of Flakeable Stone

Abstract: Widely held notions about the effects of heat treatment of flakeable stone were tested by agitating matching sets of regularly shaped pieces of heated and raw chert. The tests indicate that heat treatment changes some of the variables that control flake formation although not necessarily in ways that make flintworking \"easier.\" It appears that in order to realize an advantage to the practice, the flintknapper must call on individual skill to make technical readjustments.

Population-Resource Balances in Period I of Oaxaca, Mexico

Abstract: Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Michael H. Logan 1976 Summary and conclusions. In The Valley of Mexico, edited by Eric R. Wolf, pp. 162-178. The University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. Sanders, William T., and Robert S. Santley 1978 Review of Monte Alban by Richard E. Blanton. Science 202:303-304. Service, Elman R. 1955 Indian-European relations in colonial Latin America. American Anthropologist 57:411-425. 1975 Origins of the state and civilization. Norton, New York. Skinner, G. William (editor) 1977 The city in late imperial China. Stanford University Press, Stanford. Smith, Carol (editor) 1976 Regional analysis, two volumes. Academic Press, New York. Smith, Michael 1979 The Aztec marketing system and settlement pattern in the Valley of Mexico: a central place analysis. American Antiquity 44:110-124. Wallerstein, Immanuel 1974 The modern world-system. Academic Press, New York. Wilks, Ivor 1978 Land, labour, capital, and the Forest Kingdom of Asante: a model of early change. In The evolution of social systems, edited by J. Friedman and M. J. Rowlands, pp. 487-534. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh. Wolf, Eric R. 1969 Peasant wars of the twentieth century. Harper and Row, New York. 1976 Introduction. In The Valley of Mexico, edited by Eric R. Wolf, pp. 1-10. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. Wright, Henry T., and Gregory Johnson 1975 Population, exchange, and early state formation in southwestern Iran. American Anthropologist 177:267-289.

Bone Projectile Points: An Addition To the Folsom Cultural Complex

Abstract: FOLSOM HAS BEEN OF LONG-STANDING INTEREST to American Archaeology and there are a number of acceptable radiocarbon dates that place it within the 10,200-10,850 B.P. time range (Haynes 1967; Frison 1978: 23). It provided the first satisfactory evidence for the association of man and extinct animals in the New World and, in doing so, opened the way for Early Man or Paleoindian studies. Recognized by a distinctive projectile point with flutes or channels removed on one or both faces, the stone technology expressed in the manufacture of Folsom projectile points has unfortunately tended to overshadow other aspects of the culture. A number of bison kills are known for the Folsom time period (Wormington 1957) and these have yielded fluted projectile points. The original Folsom site (Figgins 1927) was the scene of a seasonal animal kill judging from the ages of the animals recovered. Animals in age groups one year apart, as determined by tooth eruption and wear, strongly indicate seasonal restrictions of the procurement period to the late fall or early winter (Frison 1978:149). The Lindenmeier site (Roberts 1935, 1936) may have been associated with a bison kill but the skeletal material was not preserved for study. The Linger site in Colorado (Hurst 1943) was a Folsom bison kill; the Lipscomb site (Schultz 1943), the Lake Theo site (Harrison and Killen 1978), the Bonfire Shelter (Dibble and Lorrain 1968), and the Lubbock Lake Site (Sellards 1952; Johnson 1974), all in Texas, contain evidence of bison procurement in Folsom times.

On the Historicity of Carib Migrations in the Lesser Antilles

Abstract: This paper questions the historicity of Carib migrations in northeastern South America, especially from the Guianas to the West Indies, on the basis of (1) recent chronological work on the late prehistory of the Lesser Antilles, and (2) a critical reexamination of ethnohistorical data on the Island Caribs (migration myths, linguistic dimorphism, distribution, early European contacts). A new interpretation of the previously elusive Island Carib pottery complex allows for a reevaluation of cultural continuities and affiliations. The question is further approached through a more precise definition of the Island Carib as an ethnic group in relation to other groups in the Guianas.

The Early Horizon Site of Huaca de los Reyes: Societal Implications

Abstract: From 1973 to 1974, investigations were carried out at a series of Initial Period and Early Horizon sites known as the Caballo Muerto complex, located in the Moche Valley on the North Coast of Peru. One site, Huaca de los Reyes, contains numerous adobe friezes that are noted both for their wide variety and early date. The amount of labor investment and the degree of architectural planning of the site strongly imply ranked societal divisions of the people responsible for its construction. Differential frieze distribution also supports this contention.

The Classic Maya Collapse: Testing Class Conflict Hypotheses

Abstract: Several lines of archaeological evidence are presented in this paper to suggest the existence of class warfare among the Classic Maya and of issues that historically have been associated with class conflict. This evidence indicates that class warfare may have halted the rule of the monument-producing, or Classic, elites and precipitated the depopulation of the lowland area. The theory is evaluated quantitatively by testing for time-related mathematical patterns that have been found to characterize large-scale conflicts in historical societies. The information used in the evaluation involves the time series data on the duration of rule by Classic elites as inferred from the production of monuments with Long Count dates at a sample of 82 ceremonial centers. The analyses confirm that the Maya data do exhibit the temporal and geographical patterns predicted from the class conflict explanation of the Classic Maya collapse. Alternative predictions from the other theories are considered but generally not found to be supported by these data.

Maya Blue—A New Perspective

Abstract: A detailed and critical review of the literature pertaining to Maya Blue led to the conclusion that the presence of indigo as an integral component of the pigment has not, as yet, been established by acceptable scientific criteria. A Maya Blue was prepared from indigo and attapulgite which had all the observed properties of the authentic pigment. Although the experiments performed in the present study can hardly be called scientific proof of the composition of the prehistoric material, they strongly suggest that the colorant was indigo, at least in one type of Maya Blue. The strong emphasis usually placed upon the identification of attapulgite as the base mineral of Maya Blue seems to be an exercise in the use of identification equipment. The question of whether attapulgite, a clay of variable composition and available from widely separated sources, is the base of Maya Blue is immaterial. It appears that any clay containing palygorskite, sepiolite, montmorillonite, or possibly other minerals free of plate-like crystal structures can be converted to a Maya Blue pigment with all the observed chemical and physical properties of the authentic material. The present experimental work and some reported observations regarding variations in shade and color of Maya Blue specimens suggest there may be more than one pigment so designated and that a blue mont-morillonite is one of the alternatives to an indigo-colored clay for post-firing decoration of pottery and mural painting. The technical studies which form the basis for some of the conclusions reached will be found in the appendix to this report.

Paleoindian Charcoal from Meadowcroft Rockshelter: Is Contamination a Problem?

Abstract: Martin, P. S. 1973 The discovery of America. Science 179:969-974. Maxwell, J. A., and M. B. Davis 1972 Pollen evidence of Pleistocene and Holocene vegetation on the Allegheny Plateau, Maryland. Quaternary Research 2:506-530. Wright, H. E. 1971 Late Quaternary vegetational history of North America. In The Late Cenozoic glacial ages, edited by Karl K. Turekian, pp. 425-464. Yale University Press, New Haven.

The Northeast Petén Revisited

Abstract: The role of environmental versus sociopolitical factors in establishing the characteristics of Maya settlement in Peten, Guatemala, has been debated, but evaluations have been hampered by a lack of diachronic data. Archaeological surveys and excavation conducted within a larger historical ecology project focused on the twin lake basins of Yaxha and Sacnab, in northeast Peten, have provided a diachronic perspective on the settlement debate. In this area early settlement decisions appear to reflect topographic or environmental concerns, but the evolution of civic-ceremonial authority in the region caused deviations from this pattern.

Behavior and Status in a Middle Woodland Mortuary Population from the Illinois Valley

Abstract: One shortcoming of the archaeological study of prehistoric societies is a failure to pursue the behavioral correlates of social distinctions. This paper shows, through a study of Middle Woodland mortuary populations, that analysis of degenerative joint disease is a productive approach to investigating status-linked behavior in archaeological populations.

Lowland Maya Subsistence: Notes from Ethnohistory and Ethnography

Abstract: Recherche des AA. sur les modeles d'occupation et les activites de subsistance des Maya de la region de l'Alta Verapaz (Guatemala).

Social process in Maya prehistory : studies in honour of Sir Eric Thompson

Abstract: This is a large volume in three ways: in its intellectual contribution to Maya archaeology, in its sheer size and scope, and in its cost. The latter is unfortunate, for the price will limit its distribution largely to institutional sales, with only a few scholars adding it to their personal libraries. The title is misleading, because out of the 25 chapters only the final 4 directly address social process. Rather, the volume is a sampling of the present condition and new directions of Maya studies today. Strongly represented are culture-historical resumes of sites and regions, art and artifact analyses, applications of formalist economics, and some topical or synthesis chapters. Underrepresented are studies in subsistence-adaptation-ecology and studies in hieroglyphics and dynastic succession (e.g., work by Coggins, Scheie, and Jones). If the volume can be taken as an index of Maya studies, then some general observations can be made. First, massive multiyear projects are declining in favor of smaller, more topically and theoretically focused research programs. Beyond economics, I think this is sign of the maturing of the field, for as the culture historical framework has been established for the Maya region, problems have developed that need resolution by more tightly directed research. Thus, a vitality and topical-theoretical diversity are much in evidence. In contrast with so many other prehistoric culture areas of the New World, the vast variety in the nature of information on the Maya, together with the resultant range of methods, theories, and specific paradigms used, ensures there will be no dearth of research and argumentation in the decades ahead.

Recent Data Bearing on the Question of the Origins of the Bow and Arrow in the Great Basin

Abstract: This study has shown that the apatite crystals of the bone tissue are differently orientated in the diaphysis and the epiphysis, the basal pinacoids of the crystals lying at right angles to the long axis of the bone in the diaphysis but parallel to the long axis in certain areas of the epiphysis. This finding also appears in Drew et al. (1971:Fig. 2). On the other hand the diffraction curves in this study exhibit no reproducible difference in the orientation of the apatite crystals of domestic animals and that of wild animals.

Is It Really That Old? A Comment about the Meadowcroft Rockshelter “Overview”

Abstract: There is an apparent discrepancy in the reported data from Meadowcroft Rockshelter. Radiocarbon dates from Stratum IIa appear to indicate a Wisconsinan full-glacial occupation by man in the shelter. The recovered fauna and flora are discordant with other local Wisconsinan-age fossils.

Central places and cities: a consideration of the protohistoric tarascan state

Abstract: Systems of human settlement serve as primary sources of evidence for investigating variability in the evolution of complex societies. In particular, the existence of and nature of cities reveals much about the nature and direction of sociopolitical changes characteristic of prehistoric states. The present study places the analysis of prehistoric urbanism within the context of settlement system analyses and applies this approach to the protohistoric Tarascan state of western Mexico. This first synthesis of our knowledge of major Tarascan settlements evaluates the protohistoric communities at Tzintzuntzan, Ihuatzio, Patzcuaro, and Erongaricuaro (within the Lake Patzcuaro Basin) and considers those outside the Tarascan core, especially Zacapu. This study suggests that the Tarascan state did not participate in the Central Mexican urban tradition, and that the historic capital, Tzintzuntzan, may have been unique in its urban status. Rather, the state was characterized by a complex and overlapping network of central places and specialized places. To the extent that this pattern diverges from other prehistoric systems it constitutes one source for understanding the diversity in the protohistoric Mesoamerican world.

Yes Virginia, It Really Is That Old: a Reply To Haynes and Mead

Abstract: All of the presently available and processed data from Meadowcroft Rockshelter indicate that the radiocarbon dates for middle and lower Stratum IIa are not discordant with either the associated fauna, flora, and artifacts or with the known geological history of the Cross Creek drainage. Consequently, it is reiterated that the earliest occupations at this locality still represent the best evidence recovered to date for the presence of preClovis or pre-fluted point populations in the New World. It is further suggested that a maintenance of the "Clovis primacy syndrome" is both anachronistic and futile.

Demographic Structure of Pecos Indians: A Model Based on Life Tables

Abstract: Age-at-death data on over 2000 burials from two pueblo sites in New Mexico are subjected to demographic analysis. Prior studies are reviewed to illustrate deficiencies and qualifications in the data base and the analytical method. The skeletal assemblage is subdivided into seven samples by chronological phase and life tables are constructed. Aspects such as mortality and life expectancy are then examined for each phase and a diochronic model of demographic structure is developed for Pecos Indians between A.D. 1150 and 1700. (EXCERPT)