Showing papers in "American Educational Research Journal in 1975"

Abilities: their structure, growth, and action.

Abstract: analysis of a certain other primary drive. The serious researcher may discover something that he does not yet know, but that is not too likely. The obese will not discover the 'cure' that has so far eluded them. But the curious reader, he who wishes to gain a fairly detailed understanding of what 'really' drives him to or from the dinner table, and the aspiring researcher who craves an area abounding with hypotheses begging to be tested these will both find highly palatable food for thought. C. Peter Herman, Northwestern University

Student Ratings of Instruction: Validation Research

Abstract: Correlations between instructional ratings and exam performance at three universities indicated that three rating factors (student accomplishment, presentation clarity, and organization-planning) correlated highly with educational achievement. These rating factors were derived by a factor analysis of a 21-item questionnaire. Separate analyses of the relationship between instructional ratings and student characteristics indicated that the student’s grade point average and math aptitude score (SAT) did not systematically vary with his ratings. However, more senior students (number of terms in college) rated instructors more favorably than their less experienced classmates.

Relationships between Academic Achievement and Personality Characteristics: A Quasi-Longitudinal Study

Abstract: A conceptual model which relates patterns of academic achievement to the personality characteristics of learners was tested by a quasi-longitudinal study. The results of the study provide strong evidence for a model which emphasizes the influence of histories of successful academic achievement on personality characteristics. The findings suggest, additionally, that rewards for academic achievement provided by the home are related to both high achievement and positive personality characteristics. Instructional models such as Mastery Learning and the manipulation of time variables are discussed in terms of their potential for providing students the means both to achieve well and develop positive personality characteristics.

A Guide for Developers and Users of Observation Systems and Manuals

Abstract: To guide users and developers of observation systems and manuals, a set of criteria was developed. The criteria were collected and revised during the construction of a system, the System for Analysing Lessons 2, and revised during its use in the field. Thirty-three criteria which observation systems should meet were identified and sorted into three main types: identifying, validity, and practicality criteria. Identifying criteria enable users to select the correct instrument for their purposes. Validity criteria, which include criteria pertaining to the degree of inference, context, reliability and validity, relate to the accuracy with which the instrument represents the observed events. Practicality criteria provide information about the ease of administration and dissemination of results. Examples are provided.

Ten-Year Stability of Verbal and Nonverbal IQ Scores

Abstract: Intelligence tests continue to be the most widely used measures of cognitive aptitudes. Performance on such measures is usually expressed as an IQ score. Popular opinion to the contrary, relatively little is known about the long term measuring of IQ scores from group verbal and non-verbal intelligence tests, especially the latter. This study shows that, below ten years of age, stability in IQ scores from group verbal tests is considerably below that for the Stanford-Binet. Non-verbal IQ scores were found to have substantially less stability than Verbal IQs.

Enhancing Creativity by Modifying What Subjects Say to Themselves

Abstract: Three conceptualizations of creativity, including a mental abilities approach, an ego-analytic levels analysis approach, and an attitudinal self-concept approach, were each translated into sets of self-statements which could be modeled and then rehearsed by a group of volunteer college students. This self-instructional training group (N = 7), relative to Gendlin’s focusing training (N = 7) and to an untreated waiting list control group (N = 7), manifested a significant increase in originality and flexibility on tests of divergent thinking, an increase in preference for complexity, a significant increase in human movement responses to an inkblot test, and concomitant changes in self-concept. As a result of the focusing training, which emphasized being aware of one’s bodily feelings, the subjects' self-reports indicated that they felt more creative, but this was not reflected in their performance. The implications of enhancing creativity by explicitly training subjects to talk to themselves was discussed.

The Coleman Report: Using Inappropriately Designed Achievement Tests

Abstract: The data in the Coleman Report have been interpreted by some as indicating that differences between schools have little impact on achievement. This interpretation is derived from the fact that only about 10% of the variance in the test scores was associated with differences between schools, while about 90% was associated with differences between individuals within schools. If the variance associated with school differences is appropriately compared to the variance associated with attending school one year, then school differences are quite large. It is not appropriate to draw conclusions about achievement when the conclusions are based on results of tests that were designed to maximize individual differences. The Coleman results make a great deal more sense when the test score results are interpreted as reflecting aptitude instead of achievement.

The Affective and Cognitive Consequences of an Open Education Elementary School

Abstract: One hundred fifth grade children, enrolled in one of two suburban elementary schools (one traditionally organzed and the other with an open orientation), were used to compare various pupil outcome dimensions in two dif educational environments. Subjects used in this expost facto study were balanced with respect to several dimensions of socioeconomic status, ability, and previous achievement prior to assignment to one of the two groups. Differences in school environments were quantified using two instruments. After two and one half years, overall differences were found between the two on several achievement variables. No differences were noted with respect to three measures of personality and three measures of cognition.

Learning Environment in Rural and Urban Classrooms

Abstract: The present study was an attempt to examine the learning environment and the intellectual variables of grades 8 and 11 classes from rural and urban settings representing mathematics, science, social studies, and English courses. Ninety-six classrooms provided the data. Significant multivariate main effects were obtained on locale (rural and urban) and grade (8 and 11). Significant multivariate main effects and interactions are discussed in relation to the previous research and theory. Specific educational implications of the results of the present study are pointed out.

The Relationship among Cognitive Preference, School Environment, Teachers’ Curricular Bias, Curriculum, and Subject Matter

Abstract: Following a review of research findings regarding cognitive preference styles of students studying “new” and traditional curricula, the study presents results based on a biological cognitive preference test (BCPT). Cognitive preference styles were found to be at least partially subject matter dependent; they are related to the students’ characteristics (i.e., sex and aptitude), the school environment, the curriculum studied and the curricular bias of the teachers. Students studying a BSCS type curriculum for several years from teachers favorable to the BSCS approach display, compared with their controls, a cognitive preference style significantly more inquiry oriented. Several interaction effects are also reported. Cognitive preference testing is recommended for curriculum evaluation because of its discipline and subject matter dependence.

The Student as Consumer of the Teaching Process

Abstract: College students in social-behavioral science courses described their personality traits, their teachers’ traits, dimensions of classroom behavior, and their attraction to their instructors (graduate teaching assistants) “as persons” and “as teachers.” Correlational analyses showed that teacher skill was not related to students’ self-perceived personality traits or their attraction to teachers “as persons,” but was correlated positively with certain teacher personality traits and attraction to instructors “as teachers.” Regression analyses further identified those teacher traits (ascendancy, personal relations, vigor) and classroom behaviors (teacher control, absence of negative affect) most important for effective teaching. It was concluded that college students are objective consumers of the teaching process and their judgments should be solicited to identify variables important for teacher effectiveness.

Evaluation of Published Educational Research: A National Survey

Abstract: This study is an evaluation of educational research articles published during 1971. It replicates a study conducted in 1962 by a committee of AERA. As in the earlier study, it was found that most published research is of mediocre quality. Articles published in journals of “related professions” were rated higher than those published in education journals. However, the discrepancy between the classes of journals was not as great as in 1962. The most frequently cited shortcomings of re search articles were in the areas of “procedures,” “data analysis,” and “summary and conclusions.”

An Exploratory Analysis of the Representation of a Mathematical Structure in Students’ Cognitive Structures

Abstract: The study investigated learning of mathematical structure. Eighth grade students (N = 87) were assigned randomly to read either a programmed text on probability (experimental group) or one on prime numbers (control group). The subject matter structure of the probability text was mapped with the method of directed graphs. Structure in students’ memories, cognitive structures, was investigated using a word association technique. Cognitive structure and achievement data were gathered at pretest, posttest, and retention test. The directed graphs provided an interpretable map of subject matter structure. Experimental students learned and retained the content structure but the control students did not. A comparison of word association, achievement, and attitude data indicated that learning of structure may differ from learning measured by achievement tests.

The Role of Student Needs and Teacher Orientations in Student Ratings of Teachers

Abstract: This research addressed itself to the issue of the validity of student ratings of teachers, viewing the act of rating as an instance of person perception in which students’ needs were held to affect their perception of teachers. It was hypothesized that specified student needs would be related to ratings of specific teacher orientations congruent with those needs. Four hundred five graduate students completed the Personality Research Form and rated 12 teachers as portrayed in vignettes. The hypothesis was tested using canonical correlation analysis. Results indicated that the first three canonical sets were significant (p < .01) and that, in spite of some overlap within these sets, congruence between needs and ratings was obtained.

Structures-of-the-Whole and Elementary Education.

Abstract: The purpose of these remarks is neither to criticize some particular aspect of the experiment by Bingham-Newman and Hooper (1974) nor to challenge their findings. Instead, I should like to focus special attention on two key findings: (a) seriation training proved much more effective than either classificatory training or combined classification/seriation training; (b) very little transfer was observed between trained concept areas and other concrete-operational areas. I should like to view both (a) and (b) as symptomatic of a general pattern of corroborative evidence that seems to be emerging in the cognitive-developmental literature. When viewed in this manner, the two findings, and the pattern of which they are a part, have important theoretical and educational implications. On the theoretical side, there is a serious challenge to Piaget's structures-of-the-whole principle. On the educational side, there are implicit recommendations for sequencing in arithmetic instruction.

The Impact of Student-Teacher Pairings on Teacher Effectiveness

Abstract: This study tests the hypothesis that types of students tend to differ in the benefit that they receive from various types of teachers. Factor analysis was used to identify four types of students (kindergarten children) and four types of teachers. The findings from the analysis of variance procedure were that a certain type of teacher was significantly more effective with one type of student than with another. The knowledge that different types of teachers tend to differ in the success they have with the same type of student, and that different types of students tend to differ in the benefit they receive from the same type of teacher might provide a basis for the matching of students with teachers.

Patterns of College Grades across Curricular Areas: Some Implications for GPA as a Criterion

Abstract: Transcript records of over 1,900 college students were transformed into a profile of grades across 12 curricular areas. The record for each subject also included high school grade point average (GPA) and the Scholastic Aptitude Test scores. Intercorrelations among the 12 college GPA variables were comparable to previous research which analyzed GPA over successive semesters. Factor analysis resulted in two GPA factors, General Academic Achievement and Grades Independent of Achievement/Aptitude, indicating that GPA is not unitary, but is also not a multifaceted composite. It was concluded that the system of grades could be considered singular for most predictive purposes.

Sex, Fear of Success, and the Perceptions and Performance of Law School Students

Abstract: An investigation of the effects of sex and Fear of Success upon academically-related perceptions and performance of law school students resulted in main effects for both sex and Fear of Success, but no interactions. Findings characteristic of women included fewer responses in class and greater reluctance to tell others if they made successful grades. Findings characteristic of high Fear of Success respondents included lower law aptitude scores and more frequent failure to volunteer answers in class when desiring to do so. No behaviors peculiar to women high in Fear of Success were obtained. The results indicated that women may be more likely than men to fear rejection, but are not more likely to fear success.

A Simulation Study of the Use of Change Measures to Compare Educational Programs

Abstract: Artificial data were used to assess the correlation between several estimates of average student change in various schools and the “true” impact of those schools. Results indicate that all estimates involving pretest-posttest differences measure school impact with reasonable accuracy. It is important to measure change over the entire course of learning, however, and not just over the later stages of learning. The correlations between change scores and other school characteristics reflect with reasonable accuracy the relationships between those characteristics and impact, but consequently will be large only when the underlying relationships are substantial. Simple gain scores measure the true situation about as accurately as other change estimates, are easier to compute, and probably are more meaningful to non-researchers.

Training Seriation Responses in Young Children through Televised Modeling of Hierarchically Sequenced Rule Components

Abstract: Field research was designed to test the efficacy of television programming strategies based on task analysis and social learning theory for teaching a complex conceptual behavior, seriation, to Papago Indian children. Sesame Street has been effective in teaching associative learning skills, but has not met its objectives relating to more complex cognitive skills. In the present study the effectiveness of an alternative programming approach was assessed. Forty subjects aged three to five years were randomly assigned to two conditions. Experimental subjects viewed video tapes depicting seriation concepts; control subjects viewed placebo tapes. Highly significant differences between groups were revealed. The conclusion is drawn that sequentially arranged instruction can be effective in teaching a complex conceptual behavior to preschool children in culturally different environments.

Effects of Prompted and Problem-solving Approaches on Learning and Transfer of Motor Skills

Abstract: Educators and trainers are continually seeking more efficient and beneficial methods of learning. To this end, modern technology has facilitated the development of programmed learning packages, both texts and machines. Content is ordered so that students are led from the simple to the more complex. The material is arranged to minimize or to delete errors during the learning process. Through the use of prompts, cueing, and feedback no part of the learner's experience is left to chance. However, this error-free technique of learning is in direct contrast to a trial-and-error learning, or problem solving approach. In the latter situation, the learner is encouraged to respond more freely to the learning situation. Through random but purposeful behavior, incorrect response patterns gradually decrease as correct response patterns are developed and strengthened. Although these two methods of learning would appear to be diametrically opposed, both methods have been successful in promoting learning. In practice, the two techniques have often been found to be complementary in the learning process.

Debate: Structures-of-the-Whole and Elementary Education

Abstract: The purpose of these remarks is neither to criticize some particular aspect of the experiment by Bingham-Newman and Hooper (1974) nor to challenge their findings. Instead, I should like to focus special attention on two key findings: (a) seriation training proved much more effective than either classificatory training or combined classification/seriation training; (b) very little transfer was observed between trained concept areas and other concrete-operational areas. I should like to view both (a) and (b) as symptomatic of a general pattern of corroborative evidence that seems to be emerging in the cognitive-developmental literature. When viewed in this manner, the two findings, and the pattern of which they are a part, have important theoretical and educational implications. On the theoretical side, there is a serious challenge to Piaget's structures-of-the-whole principle. On the educational side, there are implicit recommendations for sequencing in arithmetic instruction.

The Search for the Woozle circa 1975: Commentary on Brainerd’s Observation

Abstract: The reader is obviously familiar with Wohlwill's (1963) infamous woozle hunt. It would appear that the woozle, that is, a general agreement concerning the underlying processes in human cognitive development, remains as elusive as ever. More to the point, we are presently looking for a particular kind of footprint, those dealing with the convergence-correspondence issue embodied in the structures d ensemble, or the structuresof-the-whole principle. The Piagetian structures-of-the-whole principle implies that the acquisition of a logical principle or particular operation at a given stage presumes the simultaneous mastery of all the tasks founded on this principle or operation. It asserts that there is a complete functional interdependence among the logical operations that can be applied to related tasks. Due to this reciprocal dependence, stage-related structures are to be expected to evidence synchronous development in the cognitive abilities associated with each. For instance, for the putatively related concrete operational concept domains of classes, relations, and conservation, one would predict that children would display synchronously emerging cognitive abilities in each of these areas. The purpose of this response to Brainerd's (1975) observation is to review the most recent research in the area of within-stage correspondence and delineate the intricate theoretical and methodological complexities surrounding this issue, making it presumptuous to draw definitive conclusions at this point in time. Bingham-Newman and Hooper (1974) using a transfer of training design examined the efficacy of small group instructional programs in classificatory, seriation, and combined class/series

Rejoinder to Bingham-Newman and Hooper

Abstract: First, there is the matter of precisely what the structures-ofthe-whole principle predicts about concept development. In my earlier remarks, I observed that our present data base on asynchronies in a wide variety of relational and classificatory concepts seems blatantly inconsistent with the sort of synchrony envisioned by structures-of-the-whole, strictly interpreted. In reply, Bingham-Newman and Hooper note, quite correctly, that the situation is complicated by the fact that some cognitivedevelopmental theorists have sought to recast structures-ofthe-whole to permit considerable asynchrony in same-stage concepts (e.g., Flavell, 1971; Flavell & Wohlwill, 1969). On this point, Bingham-Newman and Hooper cite Flavell and Wohlwill's claim that "structural relatedness does not imply logically or psychologically that operational abilities have to enter the repertoire of the child synchronously [p. 381]." Unfortunately, the tendency to revise structures-of-the-whole to allow more asychrony violates some elementary canons of theory testing. I would maintain, more particularly, that this tendency is subject to two logical objections, neither of which appears to be answerable. The first objection is simply stated. Whatever may be the other merits of revising structures-of-thewhole in the direction of increased asychrony, there can be little doubt that such revisions constitute post hoc theorizing (cf., Weinreb & Brainerd, 1975). That is, we already know that the developmental data are inconsistent with the degree of synchrony that structures-of-the-whole originally led us to anticipate; so we revise our expectations. This sort of behavior creates, in effect, a no loss situation in which no conceivable datum could

The Effects of Modeling and Classroom Organization on the Personal Space of Third and Fourth Grade Children

Abstract: This study assessed the effects of modeling and classroom organization, open and traditional, on the personal space of third and fourth grade boys and girls. The sample was composed of 80 students selected from the third and fourth grades from an elementary school with open classroom organization, and a like number selected from a traditional elementary school. In addition, one half of the students from each school viewed a video tape in which a teacher and two students interacted in a proximate teaching situation, while the remaining one half of the students viewed the same teacher and students in a distant teaching situation. The results indicated that open classroom students reported smaller interpersonal distances to specific individuals than traditional classroom students. Also, exposure to the proximate modeled teaching session significantly decreased the subject’s personal space, whereas the distant modeled teaching sessions exhibited little influence on the interpersonal distances.

Some Remarks on “Student Ratings”: The Validity Problem

Abstract: Nicewander, W. A., & Wood, D. A. Comments on "A general canonical correlation index." Psychological Bulletin, 1974,81, 92-94. (a) Nicewander, W. A., & Wood, D. A. On the mathematical bases of the general correlation index: Rejoinder to Miller. Psychological Bulletin, 1974, 82, 210212. (b) Rezler, A. G. The influence of needs upon the student's perception of his instructor. The Journal of Educational Research, 1965, 58, 282-286. Stewart, D., & Love, W. A general canonical correlation index. Psychological Bulletin, 1968, 70, 160-163. Tagiuri, R. Person perception. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1969. Tatsuoka, M. M. Multivariate analysis. New York: John Wiley, 1971. Tetenbaum, T. Student needs, teacher orientations and student ratings of teachers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, New York University, 1974. Trent, J. W., & Cohen, A. M. Research on teaching in higher education. In R. M. W. Travers (Ed.), Second handbook of research on teaching. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1973. Warr, P. B., & Knapper, C. The perception of people and events. New York: John Wiley, 1968.

The Effect of Teachers' Levels of Interpersonal Skills on Junior High School Students' Achievement and Anxiety

Abstract: There has been continuing discussion and controversy in both scholarly literature and the public media over the processes and outcomes of education. The crux of the controversy can be expressed in terms of three questions. How should we educate? For what should we educate? What processes result in what outcome? The purpose of the present study was to explore the effects of a process variable in education upon student outcome at the junior high school level. The process variable under scrutiny was the level of teacher interpersonal skills, while student outcome was looked at in terms of achievement as measured by the Canadian Test of Basic Skills (CTBS), tests R and V (Reading Comprehension and Vocabulary) and the Tests of Achievement in Basic Skills: Mathematics (TABS). The anxiety level of students was measured by the second order factor, Qn, of Cattell's High School Personality Questionnaire. Answers to the following questions were sought: (1) Do students of teachers having HIGH overall levels of interpersonal skills obtain significantly higher achievement scores than students of