Showing papers in "American Journal of Psychology in 1979"

Human variation : the biopsychology of age, race, and sex

Abstract: Ghiselli, Molly Harrower, Starke Hathaway, R. Duncan Luce, Lois Barclay Murphy, J. B. and E. Louisa Rhine, Lorrin Riggs, Joseph Royce, Patrick Suppes, Leona Tyler, and Philip Vernon. As compared to the autobiographies of Volumes 1 and 2, the present group seems to me to be more varied. A number of different countries of origin are represented. Also, there are several whose original training was not in psychology, and this fact is usually reflected in their work. Coming to psychology after training in another area does give the advantage of being able to view psychology both from within and from without. Two instances of this struck me particularly. Luce, trained in mathematics and known primarily as a mathematical psychologist, expresses considerable doubts about the value of mathematics in psychology, except in the two areas of sensation and perception, and psychological testing. Suppes, trained in philosophy, and as active in philosophy of science as he is in psychology, notes that in more highly developed sciences there are problems that everyone recognizes are too difficult to be solved, or even attacked, at least as a whole, with current knowledge or methods. He thinks that language learning is just such a problem in psychology, even though it is probably psychology's most important problem.

Footedness of left- and right-handers.

Abstract: The performance on a simple tapping task of the hands and feet of left- and right-handers was tested. Right-handers tapped faster with their right hand and right foot. Left-handers tapped faster with their left hand and right foot. Thus, footedness follows handedness in right-handers but not in left-handers. Left-handers showed smaller left/right differences than right-handers in both hand and foot performance. These data are in loose agreement with the modified genetic theory of handedness proposed by Annett (Hand preference and the laterality of cerebral speech, Cortex, 1975).

Conceptual volume judgments by squirrel monkeys.

Abstract: Using a paradigm which precluded criterion performance on the basis of specific (as opposed to conceptualized) cues, monkeys were to choose the largest object when the objects appeared on a white background, the middlesized on a grey background, and the smallest on a black background among randomized presentations of objects and backgrounds. The monkeys were trained to stringent criteria using only the white background, then the black, then white and black together, then grey, and finally, white, black, and grey together. Only one monkey met criterion with concurrent presentations of the three backgrounds. Two met criterion through the grey condition, and one through the black and white condition. That three monkeys succeeded through the grey condition suggests this species is capable of conceptual size judgments where relative magnitude must be recognized. The implications of these data for quantitative judgments by animals are discussed.

Successive Negative Contrast as a Function of Deprivation Condition Following Shifts in Sucrose Concentration

Abstract: Successive negative contrast was measured in terms of lick rate following reduction in sucrose concentration in both deprived and ad lib rats. The ad lib group showed substantial decrements in lick rate that did not diminish over four postshift days. The deprived group showed a large but transient contrast effect. When downshifted a second time, the deprived subjects showed a decrement to control levels, whereas ad lib subjects again showed durable contrast. In a second phase of the experiment, deprivation conditions were reversed and the groups showed patterns of contrast appropriate to the current deprivation condition regardless of prior deprivation history. The findings are discussed in terms of the hypothesis that ad lib and deprived subjects attend to different aspects of reward.

Rehearsal and recognition of human faces.

Abstract: The question of whether or not photographs of human faces may be rehearsed was addressed in two experiments. The faces varied in perspective from the presentation to the recognition phases of the experiments. In Experiment 1, two instructional sets which favored different rehearsal modes (i.e., visual image versus verbal description) and two durations of the rehearsal period were compared. In Experiment 2, the continued observation of pictures was compared to the rehearsal of images of those pictures for equivalent periods of time. The results from both experiments demonstrated that rehearsal increased both recognition accuracy and confidence, and decreased response latency. Thus, previous research which had neglected the use of appropriate control groups had consistently underestimated the magnitude of rehearsal effects upon recognition accuracy. Further, compared to a control condition, the continued observation of a picture and the rehearsal of an image of that picture in Experiment 2 produced equivalent gains in recognition accuracy. The results were interpreted in terms of the schematic nature of visual images and the facilitatory effects of rehearsal for the generation of retrieval of such a schematic.

Recognition Memory for Chess Positions: Some Preliminary Research

Abstract: Two important variables affecting recall of chess positions, chess skill and meaningfulness of the material, were investigated in the context of a forcedchoice recognition task. A strict interpretation of Chase and Simon's 1973 model (in Chase, Ed., Visual Information Processing), it is argued, would predict no skill effects. In their model, skill-level differences result from differences in the amount of information encoded, which in turn reflects differences in the characteristic size of units used in encoding. A recognition task does not require complete encoding of the stimulus, and hence should show little skill effect. Nevertheless, recognition accuracy was strongly influenced by chess experience in two different experiments. Analysis of protocols and patterns of recognition for random positions suggested that dynamic features generated during analysis of a position formed a component of the memory representation of that position, especially for better players.

Similarity effects in face recognition.

Abstract: Three experiments are described which examine the effects of similarity on face recognition using a new application of hierarchical clustering analysis (HCS). Experiments I and II employed a within-groups design where subjects attempted to recognize targets among decoys from the same and different cluster to the target. Common cluster membership accounted for 72% and 84%, respectively, of all false alarms in the two experiments. Absolute error rates were affected by the number of targets actually present in the array and the style of the instructions given to subjects but were not influenced by whether successive or simultaneous test presentation was employed. Experiment III used a between-subject design where targets were embedded in arrays composed from same or different clusters. False alarm rates were significantly higher for the same cluster condition, but hit rates were unaffected by recognition context. The significance of these findings for theories of face identification is discussed.

Integration of verbal and visual information as evidenced by distortions in picture memory.

Abstract: Subjects were presented with a series of pictures, some of which were general (girl walking down the path) and others specific (girl hiking down the path). These pictures were matched with sentences which were either general or specific ("The girl is walking [hiking] down the path.") Subsequently, a forced-choice picture recognition test was administered in which subjects saw pairs of pictures and indicated which member of each pair they had seen before. It was found that labelling the picture with a sentence containing a specific verb substantially increased the likelihood that the specific picture corresponding to that verb would subsequently be falsely recognized. The results are discussed in terms of current theories of memorial representation.

Context change and the role of meaning in word recognition.

Abstract: Two experiments were conducted in which the central variable was the addition of verbal context on the test which was not present during study. Neither study showed context to be a relevant variable. Because verbal context effects (when they do occur) are presumed to result from a change of meaning, the broader role of word meaning in recognition was examined. Studies in which homographs were used to produce a change in meaning were reviewed with the conclusion that when appropriate controls are used the effects are too small to support meaning as a major factor underlying recognition. An experiment using homographs verified the general conclusion from previous studies. A review of studies was then undertaken to determine the influence of synonym distractors on recognition scores. If word meaning is critical in word recognition, the use of synonyms of study words as new words on the recognition test should produce large decrements. The evidence available did not support this expectation, and an experiment using both within-subject and between-subject comparisons showed at best only small effects. The general conclusion was that theories of recognition in which word meaning plays a dominant role cannot be supported. It is likely that word meaning is encoded during study of lists of words but is infrequently used in making recognition decisions.

Hypnotic deafness: a psychophysical study of responses to tone intensity as modified by hypnosis.

Abstract: Hypnotic deafness was suggested for 1000 Hz tones presented in random orders at seven intensities between 17 and 70 db. Subjects were 70 college students stratified into four levels of hypnotic susceptibility, ranging from low to high. Four conditions were presented within a single session. Two conditions tested normal hearing, one in waking and one in hypnosis; two tested reported loudness of the tones as reduced by hypnotic suggestion. The method of magnitude estimation was employed. Hearing reduction was found to correlate .59 with hypnotic susceptibility in the total sample. Few high hypnotizables reduced their hearing to zero; their mean residual hearing during the deafness conditions was 55% of normal. Power functions for the relationship between tone intensity and magnitude estimates for conditions of normal hearing and deafness were found to be relatively parallel and orderly, differing primarily in intercept value. Order effect anomalies are discussed. The "hidden observer" method showed that for 4 of the 70 subjects the covert hearing was found to be at least 20% greater than that reported overtly within hypnotic deafness and approached normal hearing. As in our previous hypnotic analgesia research, not all subjects who reduced their hearing significantly gave subsequent covert reports which differed from reported overt hearing. Discussion is given for evidence of two levels of information processing during hypnotically suggested perceptual distortions.

Incorporating New Information into Memory

Abstract: When a person witnesses a complex event, new information about that event may become available at some later time. Occasionally this information conflicts with what a person has in memory. The present experiment investigated the question of when new information is integrated into a previously acquired memory. Does it occur at the time the information is comprehended or at the time a person is examined about his memory? Forty-eight subjects participated in a study that included three major phases. First they saw a series of color slides, next they were asked questions about those slides, and finally they were timed while they indicated whether objects had or had not been seen in particular slides. The questions that intervened between the slide presentation and the final test were designed to presuppose the existence of certain objects, some of which did not exist. A major interest was whether exposing subjects to false information influences the speed with which they later respond to queries about the slides. If a conflict exists between old and new information that must be resolved at the

Some Constraints on the Generality and Interpretation of the Recognition Failure of Recallable Words

Abstract: Three experiments explored the recognition failure of recallable words in the recognition-recall paradigm. Experiment I examined the effect of different degrees of associative strength between the cue and target. High associative strength resulted in the most recognition failure, with the amount being greater than that predicted by the Tulving-Wiseman equation. Experiments II and III investigated the possibility that the recognition-recall testing order produces artifactual recognition failure of recallable words. Substantial recognition failure and recall occurred even when the subjects did not have a prior study trial on the target words. This implies that some indeterminate amount of recognition failure in the recognition-recall paradigm is an artifact.

Predicting Recall: The "Feeling-That-I-Will-Know" Phenomenon

Abstract: The relationship between subjects' free recall predictions and their subsequent free recall and recognition performance was studied to determine if a "feeling-of-knowing" phenomenon would occur during the storage of items. Subjects used a 5-point scale to make predictions for each word that they were told they would later have to recall. The results showed: (a) while subjects could identify during input the words which were most likely to be recalled, they, at the same time, overestimated their later recall performance. (b) Recognition performance was related to free recall predictions in a fashion similar to the predicted recall-actual recall relationship. (c) The word properties of frequency and imagery were reliable factors related to the prediction of recall. The results were interpreted as supporting the positions that recognition and recall structures start with a common basis and that words are

Amsterdam studies in the theory and history of linguistic science

Abstract: 3.2.1. I t i s no s e c r e t that the process of l e x i c a l I n s e r t i o n i s a mystery f a r from being solved i n the framework of I n t e r p r e t a t i v e or Gene r a t i v e Semantics. Since McCawley's a r t i c l e " L e x i c a l I n s e r t i o n i n a T r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l Grammar w i t h o u t Deep S t r u c t u r e " (1968) which despite i t s t i t l e does not c l a r i f y but only r a i s e s the issue r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e progress has been made. I suggest that the concept of l e x i c a l i n s e r t i o n should be supplemented or replaced by the notion of MORPHEMIC INSERTION. For various reasons i t i s impossible f o r me to describe here my views on t h i s problem, or to develop an a l t e r n a t i v e theory of word-formation. A few h i n t s have been given above. As a Sketch, I can add that I l a r g e l y agree with the conclusions drawn i n Kastovsky (1973), and therefore as i n Lipka (1972) embrace many of the assumptions of Generative Semantics. I f , however, as Kastovsky and I b e l i e v e , p r e l e x i c a l semantic elements such as CAUSE DO BECOME NEG MILITARY are converted i n t o complex l e x i c a l items such as d e m i l i t a r i z e , and the prel e x i c a l element (or atomic p r e d i c a t e ) "MILITARY i s replaced by the adj e c t i v e m i l i t a r y * the f e a t u r e BECOME NEG by the p r e f i x d e 9 which i s attached to m i l i t a r y , and the features CAUSE DO by the s u f f i x i z e " (Kastovsky 1973:290), then i t must be morphemes that are i n s e r t e d , not PROLEGOMENA TO 'PROLEGOMENA TO A THEORY OF WORD FORMATION' 181 l e x i c a l i t e m s . 3 T h i s , of course, means a ret u r n to surface s t r u c t u r e , although, not at the expense of ne g l e c t i n g underlying s t r u c t u r e ( c f . Kastovsky 1971:8f.). As opposed to Chomsky and H a l l e , one need not redi s c o v e r surface s t r u c t u r e i f one has never given i t up. 3.2.2. At t h i s p oint I should l i k e to sketch b r i e f l y my views on the 'morpheme'. I b e l i e v e that morphemes are the sma l l e s t l i n g u i s t i c s i g n s , i . e . , meaningful observable segments i n which elements of cont e n t (e.g., semantic f e a t u r e s ) are r e l a t e d i n an a r b i t r a r y way to e l e ments of expression. As opposed to some v a r i e t i e s of s t r u c t u r a l i s m I do not r e q u i r e allomorphs, i . e . , p h o n o l o g i c a l l y or morphologically conditioned v a r i a n t s of a morpheme, to have i d e n t i c a l or even s i m i l a r phonic shape. Thus, / i z , z, s, an/, and $ are a l l considered allomorphs of the same p l u r a l morpheme i n E n g l i s h ( c f . L i p k a , 1969). In my view 'morphemes' a r e , t h e r e f o r e , e s s e n t i a l l y semantic u n i t s . This also becomes evident from my adoption of the concept of 'zero' i n l i n g u i s t i c s , s i n c e 'zero-allomorphs' and 'zero-morphemes' have no phonic expression at a l l ( c f . Kastovsky 1968, esp.31-53). Following Weinreich (1966:432f.), I b e l i e v e i t i s useful and d e s c r i p t i v e l y adequate to d i s t i n g u i s h between 'major' and 'minor c l a s s e s of morphemes', which roughly corresponds to the more t r a d i t i o n a l d i s t i n c t i o n between ' l e x i c a l ' and 'grammatical' morphemes. I disagree with Weinreich (1966:433) on the nature of categ o r i a l f e a tures such as [+Noun, +Adjective] which he believes to be "semantic i n the full sense of the word". Both c l a s s e s of morphemes then, i n my view, can be represented as a t r i p l e t of f e a t u r e s , which could be termed 'phonological', ' c a t e g o r i a l ' ( a l s o i n c l u d i n g s y n t a c t i c i n f o r m a t i o n ) , and 'semantic' f e a t u r e s . I am f u l l y aware of the f a c t that t h i s i s not s u f f i c i e n t f o r a complete s p e c i f i c a t i o n of l e x i c a l e n t r i e s f o r morphemes i n some type of d i c t i o n a r y or l e x i c o n . Kastovsky's particular analysis in which d e replaces BECOME NEGmay be questioned i f one believes that in the inchoatives b l a o k / e n , r e d d / en, w a r m / 0 (which are homonymous with the corresponding causatives) the suffix e n and the zero-morpheme represent BECOME.

Open Field Behaviors Correlated with Reward Availability and Reward Shift in Three Rat Strains

Abstract: Rats derived from Wistar (W), Sprague-Dawley (SD), and Long-Evans hooded (LE) strains were placed in an open field for 5 min per day under three conditions: habituation (4 days), preshift (10 days), in which half of each strain was given access to a 32% sucrose solution and half to 4% solution, and postshift (4 days) in which all rats received the 4% solution. Individual and multivariate analyses of 10 dependent variables indicated reliable strain differences in the way the animals allocated their time in various stages of the experiment. In particular, the availability of different sucrose solutions exerted the greatest effect on the response patterns of the SD rats and the least on the W rats, the SD rats tended to ambulate more when sucrose was not available, and the LE rats engaged in the most rearing behavior. Some behavioral categories were sensitive to the stage of the experiment but not to the strain differences. All strains responded similarly to a shift in sucrose solutions and to the availability of sucrose in novel locations during the postshift period. Implications of these data for strain differences and similarities, obtained in operant and other situations, were considered.

Cognitive processes in the solution of three-term series problems.

Abstract: This study investigated the nature of strategies used in solving the three-term series problem. Three presentation modes (auditory, visual/sequential, and visual/simultaneous) were crossed with two question positions (before-premises and after-premises), for a total of six methods of problem presentation. Both high-spatial/imagal and low-spatial/imagal problems were employed, the assumption being that better performance on high-spatial/imagal problems reflected the use of a spatial/imagal strategy, while equal performance on both types of problems indicated the use of an alternative, perhaps verbal, strategy. It was hypothesized that different presentations would lead to differences in memory demands, input/processing interference, and mathemagenic behaviors, and thus to different problem-solving strategies. Response data and subjective reports confirmed this prediction. Results were discussed in terms of the Clark-Huttenlocher controversy (H. H. Clark, Linguistic processes in deductive reasoning, in Psychological Review, 1969, 76, 387--404; J. Huttenlocher, Constructing spatial images: A strategy in reasoning, Psychological Review, 1968, 75, 550--560).

Hypnotic susceptibility and the perception of afterimages and dot stimuli.

Abstract: Three experiments were conducted to determine the relationship between hypnotic susceptibility level and the susceptibility to several perceptual phenomena. Experiment I required subjects to observe an induced afterimage in a light-proofed environment and to report the frequency of direction and color changes. In addition, subjects reported the persistence of the afterimage. Experiment II involved the observation of a black dot against a white background, with frequency of observed movement being the dependent measure. Experiment III was similar to the second experiment except that the stimulus was encompassed by a frame. In Experiments I and II, subjects judged high in hypnotic susceptibility reported perceiving the strongest effect. This phenomenon was virtually eliminated in the third experiment. These results were interpreted as supporting a process whereby subjects judged high in hypnotic susceptibility are better able to selectively attend to relevant cues in a stimulus array during conditions of perceptual impoverishment.

Recognition as a Function of Word Frequency

Abstract: In two experiments, subjects were asked to learn high and low frequency words, following which they were given a recognition test which employed either orthographic or general population distractors. Results revealed that although recognition test scores were higher for low frequency target words than for high when general population distractors were utilized, recognition test scores were higher for high frequency target words when orthographic distractors were used. It is suggested that the findings of earlier investigators who obtained results revealing superior recognition test scores for lowfrequency words were a function of the kind of distractors which were employed, and that any theory of recognition memory must take into consideration the fact that recognition scores are always related to the kinds of distractors which are used.

The repetition effect in judgments of temporal duration across minutes, days, and months.

Abstract: Three experiments assessed the stability of the repetition effect in time judgment. In Experiment 1, subjects (N = 18) produced intervals ranging from 8 to 31 sec in a two-phase procedure with a five min rest between phases. In Experiment 2, subjects (N = 20) made verbal estimates of intervals ranging from 8 to 20 sec with a 48-hour delay between phases. Experiment 3 involved daily productions by three subjects of intervals ranging from 8 to 54 sec over several months. The slope of the psychophysical function increased across phases in Experimental 1, declined (as expected for estimation) across days in Experiment 2, and increased across months in Experiment 3. It was concluded that the repetition effect is relatively permanent and thus more similar to habituation than to sensory adaptation.

Handbook of Learning and Cognitive Processes (Volume 5) : Human Information Processing

Abstract: Originally published in 1978 Volume 5 of this Handbook reflects a single theoretical orientation, that characterized by the term human information processing in the literature at the time, but which ranges over a very broad spectrum of cognitive activities. The first two chapters give some overall picture of the background, goals, method, and limitations of the information-processing approach. The remaining chapters treat in detail some principal areas of application – visual processing, mental chronometry, representation of spatial information in memory, problem solving, and the theory of instruction. The first three volumes of the Handbook presented an overview of the field, followed by treatments of conditioning, behavior theory, and human learning and retention. With the fourth volume, the focus of attention shifted from the domain of learning theory to that of cognitive psychology.

The effect of food and water deprivation and satiation on recognition.

Abstract: Food and water deprived and satiated subjects, as well as control subjects, were shown words presented tachistoscopically for .01 sec until word recognition. Five food-relevant, five water-relevant, and five neutral (animal) words of high string frequency were matched for letter confusability and letter predictability. Analyses of the data, in terms of number of presentations until recognition as well as number of words recognized at selected presentations, revealed that the amount but not the type of deprivation significantly altered word recognition. Moreover, the effect of motivation was significant already on the first slide presentation, while the effects of word characteristics (word category and generated value) occurred only after a number of presentations.

Reactivation-Induced Proactive Interference in Rats

Abstract: Reactivation of passive avoidance information just prior to active avoidance learning resulted in significant decrements in retention of active avoidance by rats. Furthermore, the amount of retention decrement increased as the retention interval following active avoidance training was lengthened. Contrary to previous findings, these data suggest that for proactive interference to occur, an animal need not acquire two, conflicting responses within a short temporal interval.