Showing papers in "American Journal of Sociology in 1968"
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss four major ways in which these regression coefficients can be seriously misleading, including the partialling fallacy, in which one controls for variables that are distinct in terms of appropriate theory.
Abstract: Controlling for variables implies conceptual distinctness between the control and zero-order variables. However, there are different levels of distinctness, some more subtle than others. These levels are determined by the theoretical context of the research. Failure to specify the theoretical context creates ambiguity as to the level of distinctness, and leads to the partialling fallacy, in which one controls for variables that are distinct in terms of appropriate theory. Although this can occur in using any control procedure, it is especially likely to occur in multiple regression, where high-order partial regression coefficients are routinely obtained in order to determine the relative importance of variables. Four major ways in which these regression coefficients can be seriously misleading are discussed. Although warnings concerning multicollinearity are to be found in statistics texts, they are insufficiently informative to prevent the mistakes described here. This is because the problem is essential...
495Â citations
TL;DR: This study substantiates the claim made by other investigators using less rigorous methods and less representative samples that parental encouragement is a powerful intervening variable between socioeconomic class background and intelligence of the child and his educational aspirations.
Abstract: In this study of a randomly selected cohort of 10,318 Wisconsin high school seniors, correlational, path, and cross-tabular analyses show that socioeconomic status, intelligence, and parental encouragement all have substantial independent relationships to college plans of males as well as of females and that neither intelligence nor parental encouragement-individually or jointly-can completely account for social class differences in college plans. It substantiates, however, the claim made by other investigators using less rigorous methods and less representative samples that parental encouragement is a powerful intervening variable between socioeconomic class background and intelligence of the child and his educational aspirations. Parental encouragement appears to have its strongest effect on the college plans of males and females who score relatively high on intelligence and come from families occupying relatively high socioeconomic position. Also, ability continues to accentuate the social class differ...
492Â citations
TL;DR: The hypothesized influence of a best friend's educational and occupational aspirations on the formation of ego's aspirations and the reciprocal influence in the opposite direction can be represented in path diagrams and equation systems involving simultaneous or jointly dependent variables.
Abstract: The hypothesized influence of a best friend's educational and occupational aspirations on the formation of ego's aspirations and the reciprocal influence in the opposite direction can be represented in path diagrams and equation systems involving simultaneous or jointly dependent variables. Standard methods of path analysis may be extended along lines suggested by work in econometrics to secure estimates of coefficients when the models are just identified or overidentified. The most plausible interpretation was reached with a model postulating an underlying factor, "ambition," that is involved in such reciprocal nifluences and accounts for the correlations among the observed indicators, educational aspirations and occupational aspirations. Homophily with respect to background characteristics does not fully explain homophily with respect to ambition; a path coefficient of about 0.2 runs from friend's to respondent's ambition, and one of equal size runs in the opposite direction.
359Â citations
TL;DR: A study of 250 government agencies of a different type confirms the inference that organizations requiring higher qualifications of their personnel are more decentralized, and it shows that the larger proportion of supervisors in them results part from the narrower span of control of first-line supervisors and partly from the larger number of managerial levels in the hierarchy.
Abstract: The unexpected finding of a previous study of 150 government agencies, that superior qualifications of the personnel increase the ratio of supervisors, was interpreted to imply that many supervisors improve upward communication,whereas few entail centralized management trough directives from the top down. A study of 250 government agencies of a different type confirms the inference that organizations requiring higher qualifications of their personnel are more decentralized, and it shows that the larger proportion of supervisors in them results partly from the narrower span of control of first-line supervisors and partly from the larger number of managerial levels in the hierarchy. Other correlates of a hierarchy with many levels are size, few major divisions, automation, and explicit promotion regulations that give much weight to merit and little to seniority. The implication is that large organizations developed multilevel hierarchies,which remove top management from the operating level, primarily if con...
282Â citations
TL;DR: The report ends with a discussion of identity and its relation to the freedoms of engagement and disengagement.
Abstract: Patterns of interaction in any social system are accompanied by counter-patterns of withdrawal, one highly institutionalized (but unexplored) mode of which is privacy. There exists a threshold beyond which social contact becomes irritating for all parties; therefore, some provision for removing oneself from interaction and observation must be built into every establishment. Such provisions subserve the action patterns for which they provide intermission. Privacy, which is bought and sold in social establishments, reflects and affirms status divisions, and permits "localized" deviation which is invisible to the group as a whole. Privacy thereby unsulates against dysfunctional knowledge. Rules governing entrance into and exit from privacy are most clearly articulated on the level of the establishment and are reflected in its physical structure and in proprieties concerning the uses of space, doors, windows, drawers, etc. The report ends with a discussion of identity and its relation to the freedoms of engag...
246Â citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a probability model of expected distributions of name orders is used in measuring preferences for particular sequences, and these preferences vary with the authors' eminence, on the assumption that authors' names are listed in order of the value of their contributions, and that laureates should be first-authors more often than other scientists; in fact, they are not.
Abstract: With increasing scientific collaboration, visibility of individual role-performance has diminished. Ordering of author's names is an adaptive device which symbolizes their relative contributions to research. Interviews with Nobel laureates and comparisons of their name-order practices to those of other scientists suggests that this symbol is ambiguos and makes evaluation of individual role-performance difficult. A probability model of expected distributions of name orders is used in measuring preferences for particular sequences, and these preferences vary with the authors' eminence. On the assumption that authors' names are listed in order of the value of their contributions, laureates should be first-authors more often than other scientists; in fact, they are not. Instead, they exercise their noblesse oblige by giving credit to less eminent co-workers increasigly as their eminence grows. They do so more often after the prize, and eminent laureates-to-be forego first-authorship more foten than those as y...
233Â citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors define power relations as completely asymmetrical and overlook intercursive power relations in which actors control others in some scopes and are controlled by them in other scopes.
Abstract: To define power relations as completely asymmetrical is to overlook intercursive power relations in which actors control others in some scopes and are controlled by them in other scopes. In integral power relations, the power holder retains an irreducible authonomy, but his power can be negatively limited in various ways. Power is a narrower concept than social control. It should be limited to intended and successful control of others, although such international control clearly permits greater unintended control as well. When power is defined as a "capacity," it may be either actual or potential. Potential power, however, is not the same thing as merely possible power, which in the case of groups requires social mobilization to become both actual and potential.
227Â citations
TL;DR: Characteristics suggest that the difference between an individual's scores on the satisfactions and tensions indexes, called the "Marriage Adjustment Balance Scale" (MABS), is a good over-all indicator of anindividual's happiness in marriage.
Abstract: This paper is concerned with the development of a theoretical model of the structure of marriage happiness that may be useful for diagnosis, analysis, and prediction. An over-all model, composed of a dimension of satisfactions and a dimension of tensions which function independently to produce happiness in marriage, is suggested. The independent dimensions correlate in the expected directions with an individual's own assessment of his marriage, but do not correlate with each other. These characteristics suggest that the difference between an individual's scores on the satisfactions and tensions indexes, called the "Marriage Adjustment Balance Scale" (MABS), is a good over-all indicator of an individual's happiness in marriage. Marriage happiness self-ratings and the MABS were found to be positively related to over-all happiness ratings. Each of the marriage happiness indexes is also related to over-all happiness in the expected direction. Finally, marriage happiness is related to over-all happiness throug...
197Â citations
TL;DR: Data derived from a national sample survey reveal that education, main earner's occupation, and family income have independent effects upon class identification and indexes based upon the occupational levels of one's friends, neighbors, and relatives make independent contributions to one's class identification.
Abstract: Data derived from a national sample survey reveal that education, main earner's occupation, and family income have independent effects upon class identification. Multiple regresion analyses reveal that ownership of stocks and bonds in private companies, savings bonds, and rental property makes no significant contribution to the explanation of class identification once education, occupation, and income have been controlled. These same socioeconomic variables also account for the zero-order associations of race and union membership with class identification. However, indexes based upon the occupational levels of one's friends, neighbors, and relatives make independent contributions to one's class identification which are no less important than those made by education, occupation, and income. Thus, class identification rests not only upon one's own location in the status structure but upon the socioeconomic level of one's acquaintances.
196Â citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the conflict and interdependence of the processes of professionalization and bureaucratization are examined in large public accounting frims and the emerging pattern of professional bureaucracy reveals the complementarity of previously offered models and depicts a sequential development.
Abstract: The conflict and interdependence of the processes of professionalization and bureaucratization are examined in large public accounting frims. The emerging pattern of professional bureaucracy reveals the complementarity of previously offered models and depicts a sequential development. Comparative analysis with professional organizations from other occupations indicates that professionalization is positively related to centralization and size of administrative component. The rate of development of the professional bureaucratic process can be affected by changes in organization size and complexity and in capacity to innovate or create new knowledge.
157Â citations
TL;DR: It is found that racial isolation is strongly associated with a willingness to use violence under two subjective conditions: when isolated individuals feel a sense of powerlessness in the society and when such isolated individuals are highly dissatisfied with their treatment as Negroes.
Abstract: The hypothesis that isolated individuals are more prone to extremism is tested, using a sample of Los Angeles Negroes interviewed shortly after the Watts riot. It is found that racial isolation (low degrees of intimate white contact) is strongly associated with a willingness to use violence under two subjective conditions: (a) when isolated individuals feel a sense of powerlessness in the society and (b) when such isolated individuals are highly dissatisfied with their treatment as Negroes. Ideal types of the most and least violence-prone are developed from the cumulative effects of the three independent variables (isolation, powerlessness, and dissatisfaction).
TL;DR: The authors evaluated the relationship between post-high-school educational expectations and participation or non-participation in interscholastic athletic activities and found that the positive relationship between expectation and participation is a result of the socialization experiences of athletics rather than of differential selection into high school sports.
Abstract: Data from 785 male seniors from six urban Pennsylvania high schools are used to evaluate the relationship between post-high-school educational expectations and participation or non-participation in interscholastic athletic activities. A zero-order y of .28 indicates that expectations and participation are positively associated. The possibility that this association is spurious is tested by statistically controlling three potentially confounding variables: Social status, academic performance, and parental educational encouragement. A third-order net partial association of .24 suggests that the association is not spurious, that the positive relationship between expectations and participation is a result of the socialization experiences of athletics rather than of differential selection into high school sports. Further analyses indicate, however, that the positive association between expectations and participation is not constant over relevant categories of the control variables but that the relationship is ...
TL;DR: The mathematical relationship between analysis of variance, regression analysis, and analysis of covariance, as special cases of the general linear model, is discussed in this article, where the authors suggest some practical applications of analyzing covariance in social reserch.
Abstract: This paper presents an attempt to explicate some common features of several superficially diverse techniques of data analysis and to indicate how the logic of a single abstract model is relevant to each. The specific purposes are: (1) to show in a relatively intuitive fashion the mathematical relationship between analysis of variance, regression analysis, and analysis of covariance, as special cases of the general linear model: (2) to suggest types of practical applications of analysis of covariance in social reserch; and (3) to indicate some generally overlooked parallels between the general linear model, especially as formulated in analysis of covariance, and other methodological topics, including Lazarsfeld's elaboration procedure for the 2 X 2 X 2 table, ecological correlations, compositional effects, and others. A final section points out some logical problems which arise in the attempt to apply any of the techniques of this class.
TL;DR: In this paper, the social significance of neighborhood Protestant groups in two urban neighborhoods of Guatemala City is analyzed and the effects of these groups under the conditions of Guatemala city are to provide economic security rather than rapid economic improvement and to withdraw members from overt political co-operation with people of similar social and economic position.
Abstract: This paper analyzes the social significance of Protestant sectarian groups in two urban neighborhoods of Guatemala City. These groups recruit individuals with aspirations for social and economic improvement who are without a network of secular relationships to aid them in time of emergency and help them obtain better social and economic positions. In comparison with Catholics, Protestants are younger and more likely to be self-employed. They also are more likely to be migrants who have few family ties in the city. The social organization of neighborhood Protestant groups entails encompassing moral and secular relationships that effectively provide for members' economic and social needs. The effects of these groups under the conditions of Guatemala City are to provide economic security rather than rapid economic improvement and to withdraw members from overt political co-operation with people of similar social and economic position.
TL;DR: In this paper, a Guttman scale based on personal and cultural expression of one type of social change, namely, movement of persons along a dimension from what is defined by the cultural norms as traditional to what is considered modern by the same culture, is presented.
Abstract: Modernization may be defined as a personal and cultural expression of one type of social change, namely, movement of persons along a dimension from what is defined by the cultural norms as traditional to what is considered modern by the same culture. An example is presented of the construction of a Guttman scale based on this usage, which does not assume a universal set of traits of "the modern" or "the traditional." The data are from an Appalachian population. Unidimensionality is suggested by the data, but the evidence is not conclusive. Modernism-traditionism may be measurable in a population only if modernization is comprehended by the members as a change process occurring among them. Limitations on comparability of different populations by the use of such scales are discussed.
TL;DR: The authors derive Marx's theory of class through the way he uses the terms, rather than through an interpretation of his most general statements on the subject, which is how class has usually been approached.
Abstract: We attempt to derive Marx's theory of class through the way he uses the terms, rather than through an interpretation of his most general statements on the subject, which is how class has usually been approached. "Class" is seen to refer to social and economic groupings based on a wide variety of standards whose interrelations are those Marx finds in the real society under examination. By conceptualizing a unity of apparently distinct social relations, "class" in Marxism is inextricably bound up with the truth of Marx's own analysis. Its utility is a function of the adequacy of this analysis.
TL;DR: Two distinct patterns of attitudinal and behavioral changes on the part of foreign students in the United States were predicted: the U-curve pattern for students from highly developed countries and a reverse pattern for representatives of underdeveloped countries.
Abstract: Based on a social-psychological construct, "anticipatory adjustment," two distinct patterns of attitudinal and behavioral changes on the part of foreign students in the United States were predicted: (a) the U-curve pattern for students from highly developed countries and (b) a reverse pattern for representatives of underdeveloped countries, for whom, it was hypothesized, the involuntary return home at the end of their study period would be perceived as a threat. The findings, based on a study of a trinationality sample of foreign students on the UCLA campus, support the hypothesis. Some unanswered questions regarding the education of foreign students in the United States are considered.
TL;DR: It is concluded that the differences in problem-solving ability, as well as restricted working-classs communication and creativity are similar in all three societies, despite vast differences in culture.
Abstract: Data ability to solve a laboratory problem are reported for samples of middle-and working-class families in Bombay, India; Minneapolis, Minnesota; and San Juan, Puerto Rico. In all three samples, working-class family groups were less successful in solving the problem than middle-class families. In Bombay the differences were so great they could not be encompassed within the same measurement procedures. Tests of three factors which could account for the lower problem-solving ability of working-class samples are also presented. A "differential motivation" theory was tested by means of an index of the effort expended in the task. The resulsts show no social class difference. Tests of a "communication block" and a "cognitive style" theory revealed large social class differences in volume of intrafamily communication and in creativity.It is concluded that the differences in problem-solving ability,as well as restricted working-classs communication and creativity (which appear partly to explain the differences ...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors show that the data processing sections are quite different from other parts of organizations: they have more levels of hierarchy, a wider span of control for first-line supervisors, fewer employees under the direction of higher supervisors, and fewer supervisory responsibilities for members who are nomianlly in supervisory positions.
Abstract: Most studies of automation in organizations show its effects on human relations, but they neglect changes in formal organizational structure. Data from a study of 254 city, county, and state departments of finance show that the data-processing sections are quite different from other parts of organizations: they have more levels of hierarchy, a wider span of control for first-line supervisors, fewer employees under the direction of higher supervisors, and fewer supervisory responsibilities for members who are nomianlly in supervisory positions. These findings suggest that the consultant's role and horizontal channels of communications are institutionalized in automated organizations. The implications of these findings for classical organizational and human relations theories are discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, the capacity of an organization to control its demographic composition or, to put it another way, to pursue demographic goals decreases to the degree that its jurisdiction is defined territorially, the jurisdictions of its sub-units are defined, and the size of the aggregate net flow for the system as a whole is large and in a direction opposite to that implied by the demographic policy goals.
Abstract: By studying data on the Baltimore city and Baltimore county (suburban) school systems, we try to specify conditions under which an organization is able to control the social composition of the net flow of the population across its boundaries. The Baltimore city system has had a demographic goal of desegregated schools for some ten years. This paper tries to specify some of the reasons that this goal has not been achievable. We will argue that the capacity of an organization to control its demographic composition or, to put it another way, to pursue demographic goals decreases to the degree that (a) its jurisdiction is defined territorially, (b) the jurisdictions of its subunits are defined territorially, (c) the size of the aggregate net flow for the system as a whole is large and in a direction opposite to that implied by the demographic policy goals, and (d) the size of its demographic problem is large. We will show that all of these conditions apply to the Baltimore city system in pursuing a goal of de...
TL;DR: In principle, technology is not likely, after its first stage, to reduce functions of either the primary group or the bureaucracy, and more characteristic will be stress on continous change.
Abstract: Bureaucratic structures are ideally suited to deal with problems requiring technical knowledge or large-scale capital investments. Primary group structures are most able to handle problems requiring little thechnical knowledge, for example, where knowledge is so simple the ordinary person can do it as well as the expert, where knowledge is lacking so experts cannot be trained, where knowledge is so complex it cannot be put together in time to meke a decision. In principle, technology is as likely to take tasks now handled by experts and simplify them so the ordinary person can deal with them as it is to take tasks now handled by ordinary individuals and show how they can be more effectively handled by experts. Therefore, in principle, technology is not likely, after its first stage, to reduce functions of either the primary group or the bureaucracy. More characteristic will be stress on continous change.
TL;DR: Adaptations are systematically related to exposure to bureaucratic or participative management, and, in addition, adaptations account for much of the association between management parctices and inmates' relations with others.
Abstract: A common finding in organizational research is that individuals supervised with "participative" management practices tend to have better relations with superiors and closer relations with peers than do individuals under "bureaucratic" supervision. As an explanation it is proposed that the way subordinates are involved in decisions affecting them influences their attitudes toward themselves in relation to their organizational roles and that these attitudes, or "adaptations," in turn affect subordinates' behavior toward superiors and peers. These hypotheses are investigated in a study of prison inmates' adaptations and relations with staff and fellow inmates. As anticipated, adaptations are systematically related to exposure to bureaucratic or participative management, and, in addition, adaptations account for much of the association between management parctices and inmates' relations with others. In addition, viewing organizations in terms of structures of decision making suggests that the effects of manag...
TL;DR: The theory of mass society is paradoxically sound only when there are no or few strains, that is, when the chances of a movement are slim to start with, or when the modes of participation in a movement, rather than the attraction to it, are consid....
Abstract: The theory of mass society is criticized for its consideration of the sole restraining effects of primary and secondary groupings and for its failure to recognize that these groupings can also remain neutral or exert mobilizing effects, that they have important communicating effects for the diffusion of a new movement, and that these effects are strongly affected by the presence of strains, a factor which is underestimated by mass theory. On the basis of these points, it is suggested that under severe strains, mobilizing and communicating effects will tend to predominate over restraining effects, at least in the early phases, and that integrated individuals and pluralist societies will be more prone to political movements than atomized people and mass societies. The theory of mass society is paradoxically sound only when there are no or few strains, that is, when the chances of a movement are slim to start with, or when the modes of participation in a movement, rather than the attraction to it, are consid...
TL;DR: The level of "pure mobility," or what is termed here "occupational inheritance," in thirteen nations is linked to a set of independent variables drawn from a theoretical statement by Kingsley Davis, which indicated that a substantial part of this variance can be blamed on measurement error.
Abstract: The level of "pure mobility," or what is termed here "occupational inheritance," in thirteen nations is linked to a set of independent variables drawn from a theoretical statement by Kingsley Davis. Davis argues that a certain level of "selection by talent" and hence mobility must exist if economic development is to proceed. Measures of technology, national structures facilitating mobility, family size, and the rural composition of the manual stratum are correlated against our measure of occupational inheritance. We account for 77 per cent of the variation in inheritance with these variables, when sons of farm fathers are included with the urban manual stratum. A separate analysis of occupational inheritance of non-farm sons in nine nations explanined 59 per cent of the variation in inheritance. A discussion of the unexplained variance indicated that a substantial part of this variance can be blamed on measurement error, especially in the dependent variable. Efforts to link measures of political structure...
TL;DR: In this article, it was shown that even Chilton's method, which determines whether the observed Reproducibility is significantly better than chance, does not guarantee that a scale is homogeneous; significant Reproductibility can occur even when three of six items are unrelated.
Abstract: Since the change occurence of the various scale types is a function of the joint probability of the occurrence of their constituent responses, it is possible that Scalograms meeting currently acceptable levels of Scalabity and Reproducibility can occur by chance alone. Even Chilton's method, which determines whether the observed Reproducibility is significantly better than chance, does not guarantee that a scale is homogeneous; significant Reproductibility can occur even when three of six items are unrelated. Although very strict adherence to all of Ford's criteria might eliminate most chance-derived scales, the rule-of-thumb origins of these criteria limit their usefulness as rational proof that Guttman Scales are homogeneous.
TL;DR: The paradox arises because the empirical analyses have been guilty of "specification error" and a model that contains lagged variables is then shown to be compatible with all the existing evidence.
Abstract: Two sorts of research techniques produce quite conflicting evidence about the direction of the effect of income on the suicide rate. Time-series regression analysis over the period of the business cycle suggests that suicide falls as income (employment) rises.' Cross-sections, on the other hand, suggest that more people with higher incomes commit suicide than people with lower incomes.2 The purpose of this paper is to reconcile the two sorts of evidence. The answer arrived at is that the paradox arises because the empirical analyses have been guilty of \"specification error.\" More specifically, the various studies have omitted lagged variables from the analyses. A model that contains lagged variables is then shown to be compatible with all the existing evidence.3 Assume that suicide is a function of income and education:4
TL;DR: A three-generational analysis of marriages involving Mexican American in Los Angeles County shows higher rates of exogamy than do earlier studies, and generally, the older the groom, the more "Mexican" the spouse, though the pattern is not the same for brides.
Abstract: A three-generational analysis of marriages involving Mexican American in Los Angeles County shows higher rates of exogamy than do earlier studies. Exogamy is higher for women and increases with removal from immigrants status. There is a strong pattern of generational endogamy and a strong suggestion that social distance between generations may be as important as social distance between the ethnic group and the dominant society. Exogamy is more prevalent among higher-status idividuals; with some exceptions, occupation appears to be a better predictor fo exogamy than generation. Generally, the older the groom, the more "Mexican" the spouse, though the pattern is not the same for brides. The findings have implications for assimilation of the Mexican Americans and for understanding processes of assimilation.
TL;DR: This article concluded that a combination of former non-voters and traditional Rightists gave naziism its first great success, and the bulk of the middle-class vote went to Hitler only after the Nazis had established themselves as the largest non-Marxist party in Germany.
Abstract: No agreement yet exists among social scientists as to sources of naziism's sudden electoral surge in 1930 and 1932. One widely held view, stressing the importance of the "outcast and apathetic," has been sharply challenged by S. M. Lipset, who argues that electoral support for Hitler was essentially a middle-class phenomenon. But on the basis of a new analysis of the voting returns, I conclude that a combination of former non-voters and traditional Rightists gave naziism its first great success, and the bulk of the middle-class vote went to Hitler only after the Nazis had established themselves as the largest non-Marxist party in Germany.
TL;DR: Path analysis shows that occupational prestige expectations held three years after college graduation are related to graduate enrolment and expectations held during the senior year, and this is consistent with earlier work which showed that the effects of parental SES on actual occupational attainment are largely transmitted by education.
Abstract: Path analysis shows that occupational prestige expectations held three years after college graduation are related to graduate enrolment and expectations held during the senior year. These, in turn, are related to college grades and earlier prestige expectations. Even as early as the freshman year, prestige expectations are only weakly related to parental socioeconomic status, although they are related to intellectual ability. The low relation between prestige expectations and parental SES is consistent with earlier work which showed that the effects of parental SES on actual occupational attainment are largely transmitted by education.
TL;DR: An analysis of the residential distribution of socioeconomic groups in Poona shows distinct patterns that appear to have largely maintained themselves over a thirty-year span, and the extent of concentration in low-rent areas is negatively associated with status.
Abstract: An analysis of the residential distribution of socioeconomic groups in Poona(India) shows distinct patterns that appear to have largely maintained themselves over a thirty-year span. There is a graded hierarchy in the extent of residential dissimilarity as one moves up the socieconomic ladder,and segregation in residence is greatest for the highest and the lowest status groups. Unlike the situation in cities in the United States, the rich, the better educted, and those pursuing the higher-level occupations generally tend to be centralized, while those belonging to the low socioeconomic status groups are decentralized. However, the extent of concentration in low-rent areas is negatively associated with status.