Showing papers in "American Secondary Education in 2006"

Class and Schools - Using Social, Economic, and Educational Reform to Close the Black-White Achievement Gap

Abstract: CLASS AND SCHOOLS - USING SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, AND EDUCATIONAL REFORM TO CLOSE THE BLACK-WHITE ACHIEVEMENT GAP RICHARD ROTHSTEIN ECONOMIC POLICY INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON, DC 2004 PAPERBACK: $18.98 * 1-932066-09-8 The theme of Class and Schools centers on closing the achievement gap between Black and White students. The author discusses various governmental reforms such as economic, social and medical changes, that must be implemented before the achievement gap will ever truly be bridged. The organization of the book is set up to initially explain the achievement gap between Black and White students and how social class has a great impact on the difference in scores. The order of the chapters is logical. Defining the achievement gap, social class differences in raising children, and cultural differences between Black and White students are discussed. By the fifth chapter, the author begins illustrating what reforms need to take place to close the achievement gap. The clear organization of the chapters helped to give background information and facts. Each chapter is broken down into topics that are all linked by a single heading; this connected ideas seamlessly. The preface is written by a renowned economist, which gives credibility to statements the author made in the book. The introduction gives useful background facts on the desegregation of public schools. The author uses bar graphs effectively to visually represent information. Especially practical is the endnotes section because everything is referenced and numbered. The amount of facts and history contained in the endnotes alone helps to clearly state the author's point of view. There is an Appendix titled "What employers say about graduates" that is insightful and magnifies the current problem of what is not being tested on standardized tests. The book consists of five chapters. Chapter One highlights historical background of the achievement gap, misunderstandings about the concept, genetic factors, social class, health care, cultural and even housing differences that affect student performance. Rhetorical questions help to analyze whether cultural background or society explain discrepancies in academic achievement. The most startling facts from this chapter are statistics about the size of the vocabulary of the middle-class kindergartener being raised in a home with college educated parents, compared to the vocabulary of the Black kindergartener from the home of non-degreed parents. The middle-class child begins school with a vocabulary equivalent to that of the lower-class Black adult. Chapter Two explains how some schools "beat the demographic odds" when it comes to student achievement gaps, and within the chapter examples of the schools are given. There is a particularly interesting discussion by Dr. William Sanders about what he refers to as the "Tennessee value-added assessment system." This system separates the influence of teachers on the achievement gap from the child's family background, health and academic potential. This is a new twist for public school educators because only some of the blame could be placed on teachers for low achievement, according to the method of Dr. Sanders. Even more interesting is that the results of Dr. Sander's study only work for teachers who teach math and not reading. It is important to note that literacy is a much more difficult concept to measure on any test. There is also mention that "no excuses" schools are not really what they seem to be. For example, in one school in New York City, children who were labeled "low income" actually lived with parents who were on graduate stipends from Harvard. The income level was low, but the familial education and literacy did not accurately reflect at-risk students. Incorrectly holding schools accountable for closing the achievement gap is the main crux of Chapter Three. …

Closing the Achievement Gap in Math: Considering Eighth Grade Algebra for All Students.

Abstract: Should all students study algebra in eighth grade? Would offering early access to algebra to all students help close the achievement gap among minority populations? Traditional educational policies that provide eighth grade algebra to selected students raise questions about equitable access to advanced opportunities for all students. Even when access appears to be equitable throughout a school district's population, undetected lapses in equity may occur related to identification procedures. This study addressed the problem of achievement gaps among underrepresented populations by examining the study of algebra in eighth grade and its impact on student performance, achievement, and attainment. The purpose of this study was to explore the policy implications and potential benefits of providing algebra instruction to all students. BACKGROUND In the 1990s, the standards reform movement spearheaded by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics led schools to examine longstanding tracking policies and the issue of grouping for student achievement. Hallinan (1994) concluded that flexible grouping that allows movement between tracks can address potential demographic inequalities in those tracks, but Oakes (1994) responded that "tracking carries with it class-based damage that can neither be avoided nor compensated for" (p. 91). In an examination of ability grouping in middle school mathematics classes, Bode (1996) characterized the controversy over ability grouping as the struggle between equity and excellence and concluded that within-class ability grouping enhances the performance of high achievers without having negative effects on the low achievers. Mallery and Mallery (1999) reviewed arguments by proponents and opponents of tracking and concluded that "tracking as practiced today is detrimental to the U.S. educational system" (p.15). Meanwhile, supporters of ability grouping for identified gifted students emphasize that grouping and tracking are not identical practices and must not be equated with each other. Tieso (2003) maintained that gifted students deserve and require the stimulation of studying with intellectual peers in an advanced environment in order to reach their full potential. She warned that the majority of negative research on ability grouping is approximately 25 years old and based on anecdotal rather than statistical evidence. However, opportunities for gifted students and rigorous curriculum for all students should not be mutually exclusive concepts. At the core of this debate is the timing and delivery of algebra instruction. Two related events prompted renewed discussion of mathematics curriculum design. First, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (1989) recommended increased mathematical literacy for all students regardless of perceived ability and prior performance. Five years later, the National Center of Education Statistics reported that effective middle schools offered algebra to eighth grade students (NCES, 1994). Subsequently, Smith (1996) concluded that "early access to algebra has a sustained positive effect on students, leading to more exposure to advanced mathematics curriculum and, in turn, higher mathematics performance by the end of high school and ...the question of whether schools should provide advanced coursework to only a select few students remains at the center of this policy debate" (p. 149). The study of algebra in eighth grade by all students could potentially address the issue of mathematics literacy in the United States. A recent examination of the TIMSS and TIMSS-R concluded that "The 8th-grade mathematics curriculum in the U.S. seems comparable to the average 7th-grade curriculum for other participating countries, putting U.S. students a full year behind their global counterparts at age thirteen" (Greene, Herman, & Haury, 2000, p.2). Subsequently, Cogan, Schmidt, & Wiley (2001) focused policymakers on strengthening mathematics literacy initiatives, particularly in the nation's middle schools, as a means of providing the basis for more rigorous work in high school. …

Building for Freshman Success: High Schools Working as Professional Learning Communities

Abstract: A pivotal point for students is the transition from middle school to high school. Students will decide during the first few weeks of their freshman year if they intend to continue their high school education (Hertzog & Morgan, 1999). This article provides the reader with the research surrounding this transition year, programs and practices that have been successful, and the impact the "freshman wing" concept has had on a large, comprehensive high school in Findlay, Ohio. CREATING THE PERFECT SCHOOL WHERE NO CHILD IS LEFT BEHIND Creating the perfect school environment that ensures academic, social, and emotional success for every student is foremost in every administrator's mind and heart. This was true even before No Child Left Behind became the law of the land. But how does one do this, especially at pivotal transition times in a student's life? How to make the critical transition between middle school and high school successful was a question that plagued Findlay High School (FHS) administrators for years. School data reflected that a majority (71%) of our freshmen were making a successful transition to high school; however, 29% of our freshman students were failing one or more classes. Success or failure during the freshman year sets the tone for a student's entire high school career (Hertzog & Morgan, 1999). If a student is successful during that freshman year, there is a great likelihood that the student will not only graduate from high school but will also enjoy the high school experience. The converse is also true. If a student does not have a good experience that freshman year, the decision to drop out of high school is either consciously or subconsciously made at that time. EXAMPLES OF TRANSITION PROGRAMS Research has provided educators with many alternatives to increase student achievement. One model, a school-within-a-school, may be called a learning community, a cluster, or an academy. In large schools, this model can help downsize the number of students to a manageable student population for teachers and administrators. Some positive impacts of downsizing are improvements in attendance, student achievement, behavior, attainment, teacher morale, and parental contact (DeWees, 1999). A critical success factor is the commitment to implementation. Some disadvantages to this model are that it can create divisive rivalries or fracture existing relationships. The divisiveness comes from separating teachers into teams. Conflicts can develop from the commitment a teacher feels toward the school versus the smaller unit that can lead to rivalries (DeWees, 1999). Teachers begin to worry about how they can move from one school to another or that they will not gain autonomy (Gewertz, 2001). The mechanics of how a team operates is critical to the implementation of learning communities, clusters or academies. Hertzog and Morgan (1999) suggested creating a "ninth grade house" that can assist students making the transition from middle school to high school. [They also found that freshman make the decision to continue their high school education in the first few weeks of this critical transition stage]. In order to reduce stress in this transition, ninth grade programs can help students acclimate to their surroundings. Having a ninth grade house also benefits teachers who can specialize in working with this age group. The schedule increases teacher contact with the ninth grade population, and teaming of ninth grade teachers can help monitor student success. Development of these teams can decrease failures and dropout rates. Hertzog and Morgan (1999) surveyed 97 middle schools and 56 high schools in Georgia and Florida to determine what transition programs were in place. A control group that had two or fewer transition practices was compared to schools that had three or more transition practices. The researchers found that schools with two or fewer transition practices had higher attrition and drop out rates than those with three or more transition practices. …

Adapting and Merging Explicit Instruction within Reform Based Mathematics Classrooms

Abstract: Given the current trend of teaching all students, including those with disabilities and English Language Learners, in inclusive general education settings, it is important to find instructional approaches that adequately address the diverse needs of today's students. This is particularly challenging when it comes to mathematics instruction due to the diversity of teaching philosophy and methodology used within the special and general education communities. For the past 15 years, educators and researchers in the field of general education have advocated for reform-based mathematics instruction based primarily on the work of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). However, educators researching instruction for students with diverse learning needs have continued to support an explicit teaching methodology for mathematics instruction. The purpose of this article is to provide initial thinking about how the explicit teaching approach can be adapted and merged with reform-based mathematics in hopes of providing high quality mathematics instruction for all secondary students. The development of effective mathematics programs for students with diverse learning needs continues to be a challenge for secondary educators. Legal mandates such as the Individuals with Disabilities Improvement Act, indicate that students with disabilities, should have access to and progress through the general education curriculum (Mandiawitz, 2006). In addition, the Office of Civil Rights has challenged districts to provide English Language Learners (ELL) "equal educational opportunities" (Gomez, 2003). Along with these legal mandates, professional organizations such as the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) have addressed diversity in our classrooms. The NCTM (2000) addressed Equity as the first overarching principle to guide mathematics programming: "Educational equity is a core element of this vision. All students, regardless of their personal characteristics, backgrounds, or physical challenges, must have opportunities to study-and support to learn-mathematics" (p.11). Now, more than ever, the provision of access and equal educational opportunity occurs in general education inclusive classrooms rather than in special education resource or ELL classrooms. For the general education classroom teacher, the question of how to provide appropriate mathematics instruction to students who are performing on various academic levels is extremely puzzling. This question is further exacerbated by the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) which has increased the pressure on teachers by holding schools accountable for each student's attainment of identified state standards (Rose, 2004). When students do not demonstrate continuous progress on state achievement tests, the schools and districts may face sanctions (Abedi & Dietel, 2004). In mathematics, these issues are further intensified by the different instructional philosophies for teaching students with and without learning problems. For more than a decade, most mathematics educators and researchers in the field of general education have supported reform-based mathematics. However, many educators and researchers working with students with diverse learning needs continue to support more explicit teaching approaches (Gersten, Baker, & Marks, 1998; Mercer & Mercer, 2001). With the current emphasis on access and accountability for all students in the general education mathematics curriculum, it is critical to examine the reform-based mathematics approach (widely used in general education curricula) and the explicit teaching approach (widely used with students with diverse learning needs) to determine whether the two approaches can work together for the benefit of all students. If this is possible, the likelihood of advancing mathematics competence among diverse groups of students will be enhanced (Woodward & Montague, 2002). The purpose of this article is to provide initial thinking about how reform-based mathematics practices and the explicit teaching approach can work together for the benefit of students with diverse learning needs. …

Accountability: Teaching through Assessment and Feedback, Not Grading.

Abstract: Grading policies such as refusing to accept late work, giving grades of zero, and refusing to allow students to redo their work may be intended as punishment for poor performance, but such policies will not really teach students to be accountable, and they provide very little useful information about students' mastery of the material. Assessment and feedback, particularly during the course of learning, are the most effective ways for students to learn accountability in their work and in their personal lives. True story: It was class transition time, and students filled the hallway outside my room. I sipped on a bottle of water while standing in my doorway watching over the traffic flow. Four classrooms away, my colleague, Jerry, burst from his room, hands waving in the air over his head. "Four-fifths of my students keep failing my tests," he shouted to me from his doorway. "Well, screw 'em if they can't study!" The water leapt suddenly to the wrong pipe in my throat - I choked. Did I just hear Jerry say what I think he said? I coughed twice, wiped the spittle from my mouth, and started making my way to my friend through the river of students. What if there were parents in the hallway at that moment who heard those comments? Well, I thought, there were parents here by proxy; any one of these students can go home and tell mom and dad what Jerry yelled down the hallway. As I walked, I prepared what I was going to say to my colleague. My first thought was something like, "Maybe you've misjudged the date of your retirement." When I finally arrived, however, I actually said, "Look, Jerry, this is not cool. If eighty percent of your students are failing your tests, maybe there's something wrong with what you're doing, not what they're doing." Then, as I pointed to his doorway, I added, "Now get back into that classroom and live up to the promise of teaching." His eyes widened, his body and mind still caught up in his exasperation. After a moment, though, his features softened, and he said, "You're right. I'm sorry." Then he headed back into his room. Students followed him through the doorway. He had just a few moments to get it together before inspiring young minds once again. I returned to my own classroom realizing what a thin line we walk. Would someone be there for me? Accountability is not a one-way street, nor is it departmentalized. In simplified terms, teachers hold themselves accountable to students, the school system, the curriculum, and a set of professional ethics. They hold students accountable for hard work, civil behavior, and learning the material. None of these is a sole connection, of course. In efforts to find liability and for what a student is answerable, we sometimes forget that a student learns from an aggregate of factors: the teacher, the student himself, the curriculum, his parents, his friends, the media, the community, available resources, time, and socio-economic status, just for starters. Who or what will we hold in contempt, then, for the student's failure to thrive, should it happen? And if the student soars beyond expectations, who will reap the accolades? It's interesting that humans so often need to identify the one responsible. We are causal junkies, sometimes to our detriment, as if causality provides coherence or justification for our feelings towards another. We dash dreams and break whole careers based on often limiting explanations that are force-fit into containers we can classify and stack. Does the need to categorize people, causes, and effects limit what we learn from working with students and colleagues? In many cases, yes. In education, we are so focused on causal relationships that we often fail to see the organic nature and fuzzy logic of human learning. The best educators, then, embrace systems theory and a culture of multi-faceted response over a pure scientific design and a myopic focus on single factors working in isolation from one another. …

Middle School Models Are Working in Many Grade Configurations to Boost Student Performance

Abstract: From time to time critics of the middle level publish works that suggest that our philosophy is too much ''feeling good" and not enough academic substance. Confusing this debate is the current trend of districts (especially large urban ones) to reconfigure their schools to K-8 neighborhood schools. Here the author takes a long look at this criticism and uses solid research to answer these critics. INTRODUCTION Schools implementing the middle school concept are succeeding throughout the country; schools that are not - whatever their grade configurations - are not meeting expectations. The fact that 6-8 schools are being phased out by several high profile urban districts because they are not working in order to implement K-8 configurations is no evidence that "middle schools" are failing. The myth of middle school failure has gotten much currency in the popular press (Wallis, 2005) and from the statements of big-city administrators busy shifting thousands of 11 to 14 year olds from school to school. However, a critical look at the evidence from a number of sources does not support belief in this myth. A move to K-8 schools in districts that did not make 6-8 schools work does not inspire confidence that these K-8 schools will be much more successful in educating young adolescents. While young adolescents can be well educated in K-8 schools, it takes much more than grade configuration to deliver a sound educational program. Let me be clear that young adolescents can be well educated in K-8 settings. One big city district, Chicago, never abandoned K-8 schools in the first place. Chicago has maintained dozens of these schools right up to the present. Numerous other school districts have successfully housed young adolescents in K-8 settings. However, grade configuration is a relatively weak factor in determining successful schools. VIABLE MIDDLE SCHOOL MODELS If grade level configuration per se is a weak indicator of school success, what is stronger? Middle grades programs and practices taught by highly qualified teachers housed in schools with strong leadership. Those programs and practices associated with middle grades reform models have proven to be effective in improving student outcomes, including achievement. There is a growing body of research done on schools that are faithfully implementing the middle school models (Borman, Hewes, Overman, & Brown, 2003). The most researched is the Turning Points model (Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development, 1989; Jackson & Davis, 2000). When the Turning Points model is faithfully implemented and maintained, the research is overwhelmingly positive regarding student achievement and behavioral outcomes (Anfara & Lipka, 2003; Backes, Ralston, & Ingwalson, 1999; Davis & Thompson, 2004; Erb & Stevenson, 1999; Felner, Jackson, Kasak, Mulhall, Brand, & Flowers, 1997; Flowers, Mertens, & Mulhall, 1999, 2000, 2003; Mertens & Flowers, 2003; Picucci, Brownson, Kahlert, & Sobel, 2004; Stevenson & Erb, 1998; Warren & Muth, 1995). Turning Points is only the most widely implemented and most researched of the recognized middle school reform models. The National Forum to Accelerate Middle Grades Reform (n.d.) has recognized eight middle grades reform models. In addition to Turning Points, the National Forum has designated AIM at Middle-Grades Results, Different Ways of Knowing, Making Middle Grades Work, Making Middle Schools Work, Middle Start, Success for All Middle School Program, and Talent Development Middle School Model. Five of these models can be found in the "Catalog of School Reform Models" maintained by the Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory (NWREL) (2005). Borman, et al. (2003) used the NWREL list as the basis for identifying the school reform models that they studied. They reviewed 49 studies dealing with the outcomes of implementing these reform models. The most studied is the Success for All Model. …

Reexamining Literature Study in the Middle Grades: A Critical Response Framework.

Abstract: Recent reexaminations of adolescent literacy have expanded previous cognitive psychological models of reading to include views of the social and cultural aspects of literacy The term critical literacy refers to approaches that focus on the social forces that influence the creation and interpretation of texts When applied to the study of literary texts such as young adult novels, a critical literacy approach can help young adolescents to examine their own values and their role in society This article provides a brief overview of critical literacy and then presents a frame-work that allows middle level teachers to incorporate elements of critical literacy into reader response activities Like other aspects of secondary education, adolescent literacy has undergone a process of reexamination and renewal in recent years As the public concern with early literacy has expanded to include the achievement of adolescents, literacy educators have launched a number of initiatives aimed at promoting best practices for adolescent literacy (Moore, Bean, Birdyshaw, & Rycik, 1999; International Reading Association and National Middle School Association, 2001) At the same time, a growing number of theorists have been arguing that adolescent literacy should be "reconceptualized" (Alverman, Hinchman, Moore, Phelps, & Waff, 1998)) in response to changes in society The growing popularity of electronic texts, continued development of youth culture, and an increasingly diverse population have all contributed to the notion that adolescents today are living in "new times" that call for new approaches to understanding and teaching literacy Elkins and Luke (1999) asserted that, Literacy education has significant social and cultural outcomes, as well as cognitive and behavioral ones And adolescent literacy education is the very forum where we shape identities and citizens, cultures and communities This is not something we can do by default or as an afterthought It is not something we can do simply by adding a program or specialist here or there We need to rethink our strategies and approaches in line with a better, stronger understanding of youth cultures and adolescents' everyday lives (p 215) Many of the new conceptions that have emerged from this process of reexamining and reconceptualizing literacy have involved a shift in thinking away from individual interpretation and cognitive processes and toward literacy as a set of social and cultural practices (Smagorinsky, 2001), This cultural perspective is often described by the term critical literacy Although definitions of critical literacy vary (Green, 2001), a critical literacy approach always encourages students to examine beliefs about society and language The critical perspective focuses on the ways in which texts are constructed in social, political and historical contexts Critical literacy also addresses the situation of classroom communities in which students are of differing backgrounds, abilities and experiences as well as opportunities to inquire into literacy practices directly (Rogers & Soter, 1997) Students are encouraged to explicitly consider what choices were made in the construction of a text and how they, as individuals are influenced during their reading (Bean & Moni, 2003) CRITICAL APPROACHES TO LITERATURE STUDY The Standards for the English Language Arts (International Reading Association and National Council of Teachers of English, 1996), state that students should "read a wide range of literature from many periods in many genres to build an understanding of the many dimensions (eg philosophical, ethical, aesthetic) of human experience" (p 5) Literature can play an important role in helping young adolescents to understand themselves, their roles in society, and the people around them Moreover, literature can play an important role in building both their skill and desire for reading (Knickerbocker & Rycik, 2002) …

Achieving Success: Perceptions of Students from Migrant Farmwork Families.

Abstract: In their pursuit of an education, students from migrant farmworker families experience multiple challenges such as high mobility rates and a lack of curriculum alignment and credit transfer across local, state, and national boundaries. Despite these challenges, many of these students graduate from high school and successfully transition into higher educational settings. This study examines the characteristics of a group of diverse students, all from migrant farmworker families, who attend a large metropolitan four-year university and are enrolled in the College Assistance Migrant Program (CAMP). Results were derived from a comprehensive individual survey which addressed multiple domains that were relative to students' high school experiences. Findings reveal a strong sense of determination and self-reliance on the part of the students as well as the strong role families played in their decision to pursue an education. A discussion of the results and recommendations to increase college enrollment of students from migrant farmworker families is provided. INTRODUCTION Academic success often eludes students from migrant farmworker families whose livelihood necessitates continuous school change. As they follow the growing seasons across the country, students from migrant families frequently arrive in late fall after school has started and leave before the school year ends. In between, they may attend different schools or no school at all. Issues such as a lack of curriculum alignment between states and difficulties with record transmittal and credit transfer across county, state, and sometimes national boundaries exacerbate the already difficult transition from school to school (National Commission on Migrant Education, 1992). In addition, these students come from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds such as Latino and African American (Mehta, Gabbard, Barrat, Lewis, Carroll, & Mines, 2000). Their cultural and linguistic diversity, difficult living situations, and low levels of parental academic attainment further place migrant students out of sync with school systems that are unable or unwilling to accommodate their unique needs. Consequently, high numbers of migrant children do not succeed academically and many fail to complete high school (National Commission on Migrant Education; United States General Accounting Office, 1998). The number of identified school-age migrant students in the United States is estimated to range from half a million to approximately 800,000 (Gibson, 2003; Lennon & Markatos, 2002). Dropout rates for these students are cited at 45 to 90 percent (United States General Accounting Office 1998). Eventually, the need to work and contribute to family income draws many migrant youth away from an obstacle laden academic path (Martinez & Cranston-Gingras, 1996). Among adult farmworkers in the United States, only approximately 15% have completed 12 years of school or more (Mehta et al. 2000). Despite these dismal statistics, and in the face of significant challenges, many students from migrant farmworker families persevere toward academic success. Unfortunately, for some of these students, their dreams end with high school graduation because of in-state residency and immigration issues. However, many are gaining admission to colleges and universities. Gibson (2003) and Duron (1995) reported several factors related to migrant student success in secondary school. These include: high-quality academic advising to ensure that students take needed courses, after school tutoring, summer school to make up lost credits, ongoing advocacy and mentoring from family and school personnel, connections to school and community resources, and personal motivation and beliefs about academic abilities. In addition, Reyes and Fletcher (2003) reported that schools that have an organizational culture emphasizing high expectations and continuous improvement for both students and teachers have greater success with students from migrant farmworker families. …

KWHHL: A Student-Driven Evolution of the KWL.

Abstract: Struggling readers at the middle level need help using reading strategies effectively in order to become strategic readers. Middle level teachers need both to model and to teach how to use a variety of reading strategies that will help struggling readers become independent. This article deals with the development of the KWHHL strategy. The KWHHL was used to engage eighth-grade struggling readers with the informational text that they were reading in the classroom. Not only did the KWHHL provide scaffolding while they were learning to use comprehension strategies but it also promoted the use of differentiated learning. STRATEGIC READING Good readers use many strategies routinely while they are reading to help them comprehend the material. However, poor readers either do not know about or do not use these comprehension strategies effectively. It is up to the middle level teacher to help readers, especially those who are struggling, to become comfortable with reading strategies that make sense to them (Headley & Dunston, 2000; Ivey & Baker, 2004; Sweet & Snow, 2002). Consequently, it is important that the middle level teacher include instruction in how to become a strategic reader. KWL - ADVANTAGES, LIMITATIONS AND PREVIOUS VARIATIONS As teacher-researchers do, I reflected on what was happening in my classroom. I felt something needed to be done to strengthen my students' engagement with the content textbooks they were reading and to develop their use of comprehension strategies. I felt that the before-during-after structure of the KWL (Know-Want-Learn) was good (Ogle, 1986). It provided for both the structured support and the scaffolding that I believed my students needed to help them comprehend the text they were reading. The KWL content comprehension strategy has a before-during-after structure. This structure supports/serves several purposes: * Through brainstorming students can activate prior knowledge of the topic; this brainstorming, in turn, develops the student's interest, curiosity and motivation; * It helps them to determine what they want to learn about and to design their own questions so they have their own purpose for reading; * It helps each student to monitor his/her comprehension as it allows the students to assess their comprehension; * It provides an opportunity for students to expand on ideas. However, there are also several limitations to KWL. First, it does not encourage reflective thinking of background knowledge to determine if what students "know" is correct. Second, it does not encourage developing questions during reading. Third, it does not encourage vocabulary growth. And finally, it does not encourage students to look for an emotional link or experiential link to the material being read. Since the KWL's appearance, several variations have emerged. Carr and Ogle (1987) developed the KWL Plus, which incorporated semantic mapping and summarizing procedures. Reid, Forrestal and Cook (1989) developed the KWHLS, which helped students answer the questions, "How will I learn it and work with others?" and "How will I share the information I have learned?" Bryan (1998) developed the KWWL so that students could answer the question, "Where can I learn this?" Moore, Alvermann, and Hinchman (2000) developed the KWLS, which was designed so that students could answer the question, "What Do I Still Need to Know?" which emphasizes the need for further investigation to improve metacognition about a subject area. Finally, Alien (2004) developed the BKWLQ. The "B" encourages the teacher to read aloud to the students several short additional informational materials, on the topic being studied, before they begin to read the required text. By building the background knowledge of the students, each student will have some understanding of the topic that can then be summarized in the "K" column. The "Q" encourages students to develop questions after the activity is finished. …

A Middle School Dilemma: Dealing with "I Don't Care"

Abstract: This article addresses the difficulty of engaging middle school students who don't seem to care about learning. Several classroom vignettes illustrate practical, classroom-based dilemmas generated from a university classroom management course. Three positive engagement principles are proposed to address the challenge of the reluctant learner: get to know your students so that they can experience an informed and interested role model; take time to talk to students even as they push you away; and don't take student antagonism and inaction personally by taking a step back, instead build trust and use positive regard. The complicated nature of the reluctant learner requires an array of adaptive, teacher behaviors. INTRODUCTION After 10 years of working with aspiring middle and high school teachers I have come to realize that three of the most dreaded words a student teacher encounters are "I don't care!" For every fresh crop of students taking my classroom management course I can predict that most will be knocked off balance by these three disheartening words. In my university class we role-play, simulate and reflect on the many management issues facing the secondary level teacher. We discuss intervention strategies, communication skills, and behavior management plans, but even with actual classroom observation and video analysis of challenging scenarios, adolescents have a way of demoralizing new teachers. "I don't care" and "you can't make me" are paralyzing phrases to idealistic young professionals. Many hear for the first time in their professional lives, "Get away from me!" "I don't like you!" "I don't want to be here!" and, "I don't want to learn!" These words seem so categorically absolute. Where do you go with a student who confronts you with these words? Without some degree of student interest or a minimum of desire, what is there to work with? Every semester I ask my students to reflect on their classroom experiences and every semester I receive poignant stories of disengaged students. Adolescents have creative ways to say, "I don't care." Josh, an 8th grade student, consistently fails his history tests. He's polite, shy and undemanding. During his last history test he spent more time watching the clock than completing his answers, leaving 1/3 of them blank, nonchalantly answering the rest. Josh didn't complain or voice any displeasure. When he received his scores he absorbed his F with a shoulder shrug. His concerned student teacher, Amy, suggested he try again and offered an extra study session to help him prepare. Josh thanked her and indicated he would be there, but Josh was a no-show. He didn't seem to care. Mark, a frustrated student teacher, expressed dismay when he realized only half of his 7th grade English class had read the assigned story. He spontaneously asked for a show of hands from those who really did not care if they passed English. Five students quickly raised their hands. Later Mark sat frustrated and confused, his mind racing with a torrent of questions: "Do I try to reach out to the students who seemed to care less about passing, or do I focus on those students who were doing their work? Am I failing them or are they failing themselves? What can I do to motivate these students? Should I just 'cut them loose' as my master teacher suggested? Extending deadlines, calling their parents, and accepting their ridiculous excuses hasn't helped. I don't know what to do." The majority of student teachers begin idealistically, believing that zealous care and unbridled empathy can save their students. And why not? They have just spent four years studying learning theory, adolescent psychology, instructional strategies, the middle school student, management methods, and a host of ideas to motivate the young adolescent. Unfortunately, most will suffer discouraging setbacks because they underestimate the depth and severity of the disengaged student. …

Impact of a High School Graduation Examination on Tennessee Science Teachers' Instructional Practices.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to determine if a high school graduation examination influences instructional practices. Data were obtained from a survey instrument given to a stratified random sample of Tennessee science teachers who teach the content that is tested on their state's high school graduation examination. An analysis showed teachers using predominately teacher-centered practices such as multiple-choice questions, textbooks, textbook-based assignments, and lecturing. Also, a correlation was found between factors influencing teachers' use of instructional practices and time spent on examination preparation. INTRODUCTION Twenty-five years ago, terms such as accountability and standards seemingly had little to do with public education. Teachers were thought to be responsible to their administrators and local school boards. Local school boards, in turn, set the curriculum as well as the priorities (standards) for their school system. Now, teachers, as well as administrators, are being held accountable to the public for the academic performance of students in their charge. States have created curriculum frameworks and mandated high-stakes testing systems in order to ensure high standards and accountability. The use of these testing and accountability systems as a way to improve education has both supporters and detractors. According to Firestone, Manfils, Camilli, Schorr, Hicks, and Mayrowetz (2002), proponents of testing and accountability systems generally fall into two camps. The first group focuses on the accountability of testing programs. This group believes that the way to improve education is to give tests and use the results to hold teachers and students accountable for their actions. The form of the assessment is not as important as the rewards or sanctions attached to the test results (National Alliance of Business, 2001). The second camp also believes that the use of testing and accountability systems is a sure way to improve education, but for this group the key to improving education is not the rewards or sanctions attached to the test results; it is the tests themselves. They contend that tests can serve as "powerful curricular magnets" (Popham, 1987, p. 680) and that standardized assessments can guide the educational system to be more productive and effective (Popham, 1987). This group believes that the use of assessment systems such as portfolios, performance assessments, and other forms of authentic tasks will spur teachers to focus on more than just facts and procedures and help students construct knowledge and develop higher level thinking skills (Baron & Wolf, 1996; Bracey, 1987a, 1987b; Newmann & Associates, 1996; Resnick & Resnick, 1992; Rothman, 1995). Opponents of testing and assessment systems believe that, contrary to the idea of promoting constructivist teaching and high level thinking, statelevel assessments force teachers to focus on facts and procedures without meaning or context (Firestone et al., 2002; McNeil, 2000). They argue that these high-stakes assessment systems create negative side effects such as narrowing and "dumbing down" the curriculum, de-skilling teachers, pushing students out of school, and generally inciting fear and anxiety among both students and educators (Darling-Hammond & Wise, 1985; Gilman & Reynolds, 1991; Jones & Whitford, 1997; Madaus, 1988a, 1988b; McNeil, 2000; Shepard, 1989). According to opponents, these side effects outweigh any possible benefits of measurement-driven reform. Between the proponents and opponents of testing and accountability systems lies a third, more moderate position. According to advocates of this position, the effects of testing and assessment systems depend not on the tests themselves but on factors relating to their implementation (Firestone et al., 2002; Grant 2003). These factors include how tests are interpreted by teachers and administrators, the content knowledge assessed, and the opportunities afforded to teachers to learn about and to try out instructional practices which will help prepare students for the testing and assessment system (Borko & Putnam, 1995; Cohen & Hill, 1998; McLaughlin, 1990; Saxe, Franke, Gearhart, Howard, & Michele, 1997; Supovitz, Mayer, & Kahle, 2000). …

Introduction to Middle School

Abstract: Introduction to Middle School SARA DAVIS POWELL 2005 PRENTICE HALL, SADDLE BACK RIVER, NJ $33.75 ISBN 0-13-060090-3 The title, Introduction to Middle School, may not be movie material, but the book is an exciting contribution to middle school teacher education. Sara Davis Powell, Associate Professor at the College of Charleston, has produced a middle school education book that thankfully changes the image of the "survey text." Authors of survey texts in education have the awesome challenge of condensing the complex dimensions and nuances of a field of study into a readable package that provides a solid overview in a format that is understandable to the novice. The ideal survey text used the conceptual framework in an area of study as an organizer, and then skillfully weaves together current trends with examples of best practice. All too often, such texts either emphasize theory without relating it to practice, or merely accumulate activities and examples without linking them to a theoretical framework. Powell has done a magnificent job of linking both theory and practice. The twelve chapter book is organized around the essential elements of middle school education. Major concepts such as the nature of the middle school learner, diversity concerns, middle grades curriculum, instructional planning, assessment, parent/community involvement and classroom management all receive careful attention. What makes this text outstanding, however, are the features that go beyond the traditional. In addition to the time-honored topics, Powell has included an excellent chapter titled "Middle Level Teachers." She describes the importance of teachers as learners, as well as the reality of what it means to be a teacher from a personal as well as a community perspective. Brief vignettes of teachers are introduced and are utilized throughout the book. Powell also takes the traditional topic of middle school organization and creatively expands it by devoting a chapter to "Structures of the Middle school." She discusses structures of time (scheduling options), place (basics of classroom setup) and people (teaming, grouping and advisory). Introduction to Middle School has a fresh and engaging feel that is seldom found in survey texts. Powell creates a sense of realism throughout the book by introducing readers to eight teachers and ten students, complete with pictures, who are used to illustrate concepts and pose questions in each chapter. …

Issues regarding In-School Suspensions and High School Students with Disabilities.

Abstract: This paper examined the effectiveness of in-school suspension (ISS) with high-school students who are protected under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The accepted purpose of ISS is to remove disruptive students from the classroom, thus giving these students the benefit of remaining in school where they can continue to work on assignments. This paper examined the merits of ISS and the legal issues involved in using in-school and out-of-school suspension for children with disabilities. The paper cautioned that the implementation of the re-authorized IDEA may lead to necessary changes in the procedural aspects of ISS. Considerations for improving the effectiveness of ISS Programs for students with disabilities are offered. Teachers have struggled with behavior problems since the days of oneroom schools (Morris & Howard, 2003). In 1987, a national study found that a majority of teachers believed that student misbehavior interfered with their teaching, and more than half of the teachers thought it interfered with student learning (National Center for Education Statistics, 1987). In that survey, almost one third of the teachers indicated that they had considered leaving teaching because of student misbehavior. Parents also view school discipline as a major concern. An annual Gallup poll of the public's attitudes toward schools revealed that 84% of Americans believed a lack of discipline contributed to learning failures in public schools. The respondents indicated that the only problem greater than a lack of discipline was a lack of funding (Rose & Gallup, 2003). By the 1960s out of school suspensions (OSS) were seen as an effective means of dealing with large numbers of disruptive students and also as protecting the complement of the student body (Adams, 2000). But in the ensuing decades, critics found a harsher tone for OSS arguing that such suspensions harm students academically, fail to address core behavior problems and release adolescents to the streets without supervision (White, 2003). Patterson (1985) questioned the effectiveness of the approach and Rudolph (1984) argued that it may well be rewarding for some students, inadvertently providing precisely the wrong incentives. Suspension may also have dire psychological effects upon students; Haupt (1987), for example, has concluded that when a child is suspended it "...raises in the student's mind the issue of whether he/she belongs in school at all" (p. 29). In addition to the pedagogical and psychological criticisms of out-ofschool suspensions, OSS simply became more difficult to administer following the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in Goss v. Lopez (1975: hereafter Goss). Goss involved a group of students who claimed that their right to due process had been denied when they were suspended from school without a hearing. The Court ruled that students must be given due process in cases of possible suspension, including oral and written notices of charges against them; the opportunity to challenge the allegations, and, the right to a hearing before an unbiased group (Adams, 2000). Following Coss, schools were faced with several problems when considering suspensions. First, teachers had to prepare a case for suspension, demonstrating that due process had been followed in the disciplinary process, a task involving considerable time and energy. At the same time, schools had to be very careful procedurally because of the potential litigation and because of heightened public scrutiny in response to careless disciplinary actions in the past. Finally, as the accountability movement took firm hold, schools came under great pressure to improve attendance rates, a goal at odds with OSS. Partially in response to this issue, the use of inschool suspension (ISS) acquired increased prominence (Adams, 2000). One group of students greatly affected by these events are those with disabilities protected under IDEA. DISCIPLINING STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES The IDEA Amendments of 1997 spell out the methods by which schools are allowed to discipline students with disabilities. …

For Every Bully There Is a Victim.

Abstract: Bullying is an issue that many face daily; the article discusses the bully, the victim, and approaches to addressing bullying in the schools Both victim and bully have characteristics that can be identified; the article provides a discussion of bullying and provides suggestions to consider

Secondary Schools Online: Are High School Web Sites Effective?

Abstract: High schools have traditionally focused on the in-depth instruction of specific subject matter and have served as both a preparatory phase for higher education for some students and an institution that prepares others to enter the workforce One method to help high schools accomplish these goals is through the creation and maintenance of a school Web site The purpose of this study was to evaluate the extent to which high schools' Web sites reflect the overarching goals of high schools and how well they meet criteria for effectiveness based on the fusion of literature on high schools and effective Web site design and development A steady increase in Internet connectivity among the various stakeholders in the educational process is the primary reason for the rise in popularity of school Web sites (Chen, 2002; National Center for Education Statistics, 2003; US Department of Commerce, 2001) With this increase in popularity, it becomes increasingly important that the goals of school sites align with and supplement the goals of the educational institutions they represent There are two primary goals of school Web sites First, as information systems for site visitors, they provide access to an array of data and information second, school Web sites act as intermediaries between the various stakeholders in the educational process, such as the school, parents, and the community (McKenzie, 1997) There are also a number of secondary goals which possess significance for high schools, including: 1) introducing educational stakeholders to the school, 2) providing opportunities for local and global publication of student work, 3) acting as an intermediary to a larger body of information, and 4) providing a rich source of locally relevant data related to a variety of instructional topics (McKenzie, 1997) GOALS FOR WEB SITES INTRODUCING THE SCHOOL A Web site can serve as an effective introduction to the high school This includes conveying information, such as the overall character, look, mission, and environment of the school These "introductions" should include an assortment of information, such as a picture of the school, demographic information of the student body, school accountability information, faculty/staff information, course offerings, and resource information Current and potential students, parents, and other stakeholders in the educational process would find this information useful PUBLISHING STUDENT WORK Another important purpose of high school Web sites is to provide opportunities for students to publish their work both locally and globally Not only does this further introduce site visitors to the school, but it also has a number of implications for student learning Numerous studies have demonstrated the value of publishing student work on the World Wide Web For instance, Dixon and Black (1996) and Routman (1991) found that publication of student work could be motivational for many students Riley and Roberts (2000), as well as Ward-Schofield and Locke-Davidson (2002) reported other results, such as increased student achievement and increased positive attitudes toward content Other studies have illustrated that student web publication allowed students to visualize the purpose of their work much more clearly and promoted reflection regarding their individual growth and development (Snyder, Lippincott, & Bower, 1998; Spitz, 1996; Willet-Smith, 1993) INTRODUCING A LARGER BODY OF INFORMATION High school Web sites can provide diverse resources for students, parents, and teachers, including guidance resources and other information Student resources might include a variety of curricular tools for all subject areas Items such as Internet search tools, tutorials, help/homework centers, remediation tools, and additional educational resources could be included For teachers, the high school Web site could provide access to assorted lesson plans related to the high school curriculum or additional resources for enhancing the teaching and learning environment …

Teenage Pregnancy Prevention and Adolescents' Sexual Outcomes: An Experiential Approach.

Abstract: This study evaluates the effectiveness of an experiential approach to teen pregnancy (TP) prevention called "Baby Think It Over," a computerized infant simulator, on adolescents' attitudes and behaviors regarding teen pregnancy and sexuality. Recently, a more realistic model called "Real Care Baby" was developed. The small amount of research on the effectiveness of the original program yielded mixed results. Participants were experimental (n=133) and comparison (n=116) groups of primarily white, middle class, suburban high school students. Multivariate analyses revealed no overall effect, but univariate, correlational, and narrative analyses suggested several positive outcomes. Theoretical implications for experiential approaches are discussed. Research and practice applications are emphasized. INTRODUCTION HISTORY AND GOALS OF BABY THINK IT OVER "Baby Think It Over" (BTIO) is a program designed to create a realistic experience of the responsibility and burden involved with infant care. The original model is a computerized baby that was engineered to simulate typical unpredictable infant behavior, primarily by crying at intervals and for durations that are unpredictable. When the baby cries, the student must hold a key in the baby's back until the crying ends. The program (created, manufactured, and sold by BTIO Educational Products, Inc., formerly Baby Think It Over, Inc., in Wisconsin) is continually increasing in popularity among educators. According to the company, the program is currently in use in all 50 states and internationally, and the simulators have been used by more than 1 million students. Schools are the most common place in which the program is used, although it is also used in other settings. The goal of the program is to create a lasting impression on both teen women and men of the personal sacrifice and challenges required of new parents. The idea for this program was born out of the flour sack- and egg-baby approaches to teen pregnancy prevention. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS Theoretically, there is reason to expect that an experiential approach to teenage pregnancy prevention would be effective. For example, according to the Optimistic Bias approach (Weinstein, 1980), when a person chooses to engage in a behavior known to entail risks, he/she tends to justify engaging in the behavior by underestimating the possibility of incurring negative effects. An experiential approach seems likely to have an effect because it provides a first-hand demonstration of reality that will lead teens to underestimate that reality to a lesser degree. The adolescent's typical perception, especially in early and middle adolescence, that negative outcomes are not likely to happen to him/her may be substantially reduced by experiential approaches. Cognitive development is a key theoretical consideration relevant to this experiential approach (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958,1969; Miller, 1993). Despite criticisms of some aspects of Piaget's theory, his foundations in the order of succession in knowledge acquisition prevail. Borrowing from biological models, Piaget proposed that knowledge and cognition also develop in similarly universal ways. Although some adolescents start to experiment with abstract and hypothetical reasoning skills, most still tend to be more concrete than abstract, especially during early and middle adolescence. Many do not yet systematically formulate hypotheses and test these out against reality. Thus, they may not systematically formulate and test hypotheses against reality with concepts like parenting, pregnancy (including the probabilities associated with conception), and child rearing, which are relatively abstract and intangible. Adolescents are less likely to identify with them if presented in traditional lecture formats in which visualization, perspective taking, and so on, are necessary. Cognitive limitations temporarily experienced by adolescents, namely adolescent egocentrism, are also likely to contribute to their less than perfect reasoning. …

Seeking an Interim Alternative Education Placement for Dangerous or Disruptive Students with Disabilities: Four Burdens for the School District to Meet.

Abstract: School safety is a concern of administrators, teachers, parents and students. Federal legislation has been enacted to address school safety, including the discipline of students with disabilities. One option available to school districts is to place potentially dangerous or disruptive students in an interim alternative educational setting (IAES). School districts must meet a burden of proof by showing that such placements are necessary. Specific examples of the 1997 IDEA four-prong burden are presented in this article. These cases clarify four sources of evidence that were necessary for a school district to obtain an order to remove a dangerous or disruptive child to an IAES. Next, the analysis reviews cases addressing various types of disruptive and dangerous behaviors. Third, a review of cases involving placement in an IAES for drug and weapons offenses is presented. Guidelines for balancing the need for school safety with the need to provide appropriate programs for students with disabilities are also presented. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), which was recently reauthorized in December of 2004, contains numerous provisions to ensure that students with disabilities are provided a free, appropriate education. Among those provisions are policies governing the discipline of students with disabilities. A student must be provided the services identified in the Individualized Education Program (IEP), and those services may not be changed without certain procedural safeguards. Specifically, any disciplinary action that might change the provision of IEP services, such as suspension or expulsion, can only be taken if the procedural safeguards have been applied. The IDEA specifies that prior to disciplinary action that would change a student's placement (e.g., suspensions culminating in more than 10 days or expulsion) the district must conduct a manifestation determination and functional behavioral assessment to determine if the misconduct is related to the child's disability. If there is no relationship, the school district may apply disciplinary sanction in the same manner as for nondisabled students. However, the school district is required to provide IEP services during long-term (e.g., more than 10 school days) suspensions or during the expulsion period [20 U.S.C. § 1415(k)(1)(D)]. The discipline provisions also permits a school district to remove a student from school and place the student in an Interim Alternative Education Setting (IAES) under three conditions. First, the 1997 IDEA gave school officials the authority to immediately remove a child from an educational setting to an IAES if the child a) carries a weapon to school or to a school function that is under the jurisdiction of the local school district, and b) knowingly possesses or uses illegal drugs or sells or solicits the sale of a controlled substance while at a school or a school function that is under the jurisdiction of the local school district. The 2004 IDEA added a third condition under which school personnel may remove a child to an IAES: if a child has inflicted serious bodily injury upon another person while at school, on school premises, or at a school function [20 U.S.C. §1415(k)(1)(G)(iii)]. The IAES is available up to 45 school days, is selected by the IEP team, and must permit the child to continue to participate in the general curriculum and continue to receive the services identified on the IEP. The IAES must also permit the child to receive, as appropriate, a functional behavioral assessment, and behavioral intervention services and modifications that are designed to address the behavior violation so that it does not recur [20 U. S. C. § 1415(k)(1)(D)]. In this way, the school can place the child in a setting outside the school while completing the manifestation determination and functional behavioral assessment and while determining what the child's future placement might be. The IAES provisions were intended to balance the need for school safety with the need to provide students who have disabilities with the education program guaranteed them by law. …

Harry Truman and the Atomic Bomb: An Excursion into Character Education through Storytelling

Abstract: This article asserts the importance of character education through the utilization of historical storytelling in the social studies classroom. After briefly noting the value of the historical story in this regard, a specific, ready-made example is provided concerning Truman's decision to use the atomic bomb and includes a crucial set of follow-up questions. As character education continues to be an objective of the social studies, the more effective secondary school educators have taken up the challenge by first understanding the opportunities their discipline provides for examining the values of character. Strategy then comes to the forefront. Social studies teachers are rediscovering how a focus on the actual men and women of history (past and present) can play a major role in teaching character. This is a method that John Dewey asserted was once widely used in American secondary schools and one that is currently used successfully in foreign schools (Brooks & Coble, 1997). A focus on historical individuals cannot, however, be a matter of relating simple, irrelevant facts. Rather, it requires the element of story-telling. History abounds with stories of the human struggle. When approached from that perspective, a myriad of opportunities for teaching are available. Lockwood and Harris (1985) noted that true historical stories involving dramatic moments of moral conflict are especially useful in engaging students to reflect upon values. These stories tell how individuals make personal decisions involving truth, integrity, honesty, and loyalty, and they encourage students to analyze the issues and choices made. At the very least, such stories help students realize that others before them have faced the same dilemmas that they do and that, by making the right choices, they persevered. More importantly, historical stories prove that the values of good character are not restricted to people of a particular time or place and counteract the sometimes irresistible tendency to elevate individuals into mythical heroes (Sanchez, 1998). Campbell (1988) noted the sheer power of historical/cultural stories to impart important ideas and values to ensuing generations, stating that such stories "are about the wisdom of life" (p.24). He also lamented that present education lacks such emphasis. If secondary educators are unable or reluctant to use the story-telling strategy and to relate learning to life values, high school students are learning not the wisdom of life but merely information and technology. This is a historically precipitous circumstance. The great civilizations of the world point out a disconcertingly common denominator of survival: a civilization's citizenry could to varying degrees be academically competent, but once that same citizenry failed to be educated in the virtue of character, it steadily declined (Sanchez & Mills, 2005). America's past, present, and promise are comprised of stories involving individuals and groups facing life's challenges. Their encounters with personal tribulations, successes, failures, and, ultimately, resolution, reflect values inherent in a democratic society. Further, the stories "are likely to attract the attention of [secondary] learners to arouse their interest and to raise questions among them that lead to discussion and reflection about values" (Sanchez, 1998, p.1). As Leming (1996) asserted, it is against the backdrop of information from our culture's stories that high school students must evaluate the present state of our values as they relate to their own lives and the future of America. Every era of our history provides opportunities to pinpoint and explore specific values. These stories invite us to examine the issues, circumstances, choices, and consequences, and ultimately to relate them to our own lives. It comes down to real-life people involved in real-life situations. Sanchez(2000) stated that an examination of their stories . …

Focus on Mathematics

Abstract: Recent news about mathematics education suggests that identifying and implementing "what works" is much more complicated than the public and the press assume. The Pew Research Center recently reported research showing that women score much lower on math tests if they are first asked unrelated questions about gender issues. The study is the latest example of a phenomenon known as "stereotype threat" that affects the performance of women or minorities in areas where the general stereotype suggests they are weak. The study by University of Texas psychologist Matthew S. McGlone suggested that performance can actually be manipulated in a positive direction by prompting people to think about their strengths rather than their stereotypical weaknesses. Students at Lafayette College, where McGlone taught, were asked to answer a questionnaire before taking a math achievement test. One group was asked questions about why they chose to attend a private liberal arts college in order to prompt them to think about how smart and accomplished they were. Another group was prompted to be aware their gender-related experiences by answering whether they lived in a single-sex or co-ed dorm. The students then took the Vandenberg Mental Rotation Test, a standard test of visual-spatial ability on which men have generally performed far better than women. In the control group, the men did 15 to 20 percent better on the Vandenberg test than the women, and among those who had been cued to think about their gender, the men did 25 percent to 30 percent better than the women. Among those who were primed to think about their status as students at an exclusive private college, however, women's performance improved while men's did not change. As a result, there was no significant difference between men and women. The report on the study is titled "Women can't do math. Or can they?" (see http://pewresearch.org/obdeck/?ObDecklD=58). Teaching mathematics in high school is, of course, greatly influenced by what students learn in the middle grades and earlier. That is why secondary teachers and curriculum directors should take note of a report called "Curriculum Focal Points for Prekindergarten Through Grade 8 Mathematics" recently published by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. A news release at the NCTM web site noted that individual states have made enormously different applications of its 1989 content standards with some states identifying nearly 100 expectations per grade level. The Focal Points are meant to help states identify those skills and abilities that are truly essential for each age level. The news release noted that report was "reviewed by numerous math experts from across the country, some of whom have strongly disagreed with the organization's past positions on essential skills." (see NCTM.org) In response to the release of Focal Points, an editorial in the New York Times (see http://www. …