Showing papers in "Annals of The American Academy of Political and Social Science in 1946"
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TL;DR: The hurricane of war and occupation which, after only five days of fighting, swept the Netherlands for fully five years has heavily damaged this country as mentioned in this paper, with the exception of a very small group which turned against the Dutch people in its struggle against suppression and enslavement, a conduct for which they have now to pay the penalty.
Abstract: THE hurricane of war and occupation which, after only five days of fighting, swept the Netherlands for fully five years has heavily damaged this country. With the exception of a very small group which turned against the Dutch people in its struggle against suppression and enslavement, a conduct for which they have now to pay the penalty, the Dutch community has suffered deeply. The Germans inflicted smarting wounds on the Dutch body. They cared not what means they used, for they served only their own purpose -the German war effort, coupled with a sadistic desire for destruction, suppression, and humiliation. To understand the problems which the Netherlands has to face in its eco-
2,175 citations
116 citations
TL;DR: Prejudice is not a new subject as discussed by the authors, but it has been increasingly acute in the social evolutions of recent years, especially in the fields of racial, religious, and class tensions.
Abstract: ences to &dquo;get out and do something.&dquo; Prejudice is not a new subject. Yet, we are ill adapted to cope with the problems of prejudice which have grown increasingly acute in the social evolutions of recent years. The customary context of prejudice is in the fields of racial, religious, and class tensions. Its implications, however, extend to all aspects of group living and of personal-social relationships. In methods of bringing up children, in manners of dress, in food habits, in differential standards for men and women, in preferred forms of leadership, in the way in which a factory or organization is run-in these and innumerable other
48 citations
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TL;DR: The ideal which held that the productivity of the European living space should be available to all Germanic peoples alike had to be viewed from the first as nothing but empty propaganda for the Nazi doctrine, which had not found fertile ground in this little country.
Abstract: mean privation and soon hunger, because neither production nor distribution could be scientifically organized. Distress seemed the more probable because it was feared and expected that the occupation force would demand tribute from the large supply of nutritious provisions which in that early day was still available; and also because the ideal which held that the productivity of the &dquo;European living space&dquo; should be available to all Germanic peoples alike had to be viewed from the first as nothing but empty propaganda for the Nazi doctrine, which had not found fertile ground in this little country. In reality, this notion served only as an excuse for stealing commodities and means of production, which were &dquo;ex-
43 citations
TL;DR: The serious shortage of fuel caused a gradual decrease and finally a complete shutting down of the production of gas and electricity, and in several places even the water supply had to be cut off, while the authorities were unable to provide fuel for stoves and furnaces in homes.
Abstract: AT the outbreak of the war the Netherlands was in many respects in a very favorable position in the social and health spheres. The organization for the care of public health, the executive branch of which was mainly entrusted to voluntary private initiative-the so-called Cross Associationswith financial government support and under the direction of the State Medical Supervision of Public Health, had led to satisfactory results. In the year 1939, for this country the last before the war, the general mortality in the Netherlands amounted to 8.7 per 1,000 inhabitants, the mortality of children under one year to 33.7 per 1,000 live births, and the tuberculosis mortality to 4.11 per 10,000 inhabitants-a rate more favorable than any other country probably could show. Then came the war and with it the difficulties in the matter of food supply, which increased steadily due to the stoppage of imports and the systematic removal of large quantities of cattle and foodstuffs by the Germans. The shortage of fats was especially strongly felt, and as the war continued, other rations also decreased steadily. The situation became more and more unbearable for the population and, from the point of view of public health, almost a catastrophe. The serious shortage of fuel caused a gradual decrease and finally a complete shutting down of the production of gas and electricity, and in several places even the water supply had to be cut off, while the authorities were unable to provide fuel for stoves and furnaces in homes. Throughout the winter of 1944-45 the population sat without light, without gas, without heat; laundries ceased operating; soap for personal use was un-
40 citations
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TL;DR: The underground struggle was especially hard because the Germans made even the possession of "communistic ideas" a crime as discussed by the authors, and approximately 5,500 militant members were sent to concentration camps and 2,000 were shot or'murdered'.
Abstract: militant members were free to participate in the underground movement, but did so on their individual responsibility. Only after many months did some of the Socialist, Catholic, and Liberal leaders consider reconstituting their parties in the underground. The Communist Party, however, harboring no illusions concerning the persecution to which it would be subjected by Hitlerismwhich it had constantly denounced as being the worst enemy of the workers-secretly carried on as before. The underground struggle was especially hard because the Germans made even the possession of "communistic ideas" a crime. Approximately 5,500 militant members were sent to concentration camps and 2,000 were shot or 'murdered. But every day new fighters took the places of the fallen, and in spite of cruel losses, the party had more members when the day of liberation came than when the Germans invaded the country. Throughout, the party retained its solid structure and organization and gave all its members strict orders to join the resistance movement. Nor was resistance postponed until the Germans launched their attack against Soviet Russia. In May 1941, 100,000 Liege workers, under the leadership of Julien Lahaut, chairman of the party and a member of the Belgian Parliament, instigated the first large-scale strike aimed at the occupation forces. About the same time, the Communist Party appealed to all patriots to join hands in co-ordinating their efforts and form a great Independence Front, regardless of their political opinions.
25 citations
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TL;DR: The youth organizations affiliated with the party were seriously disorganized at the start, because their established methods of work were not adapted to participation in the struggle, and many of their leaders were prisoners of war or had succeeded in entering England or the free countries beyond the Atlantic.
Abstract: met secretly under the chairmanship of Mr. Fernand Demets, formerly Minister of National Defense and at present Governor of the province of Brabant. The meetings continued in spite of increasing difficulties. Mr. Demets was imprisoned for having, with other officials of the Senate, protested against the deportation of workers. During his absence Mrs. Jane Brigode, vice chairman of the party, presided over the party without giving a moment's heed to the danger she incurred. During the first months of the enemy occupation, committees were formed in several of the large cities. They soon co-ordinated their efforts under the direction of Mr. Georges Petre, burgomaster of Saint Josse ten Noode, who was foully assassinated on December 31, 1942 by Rexist killers in enemy pay. Among the heads of these committees we may note the names of E. Cox, W. Koninckx (at present a member of the party executive), H. Story (a judge of the city of Ghent who died in a concentration camp), and others. The youth organizations affiliated with the party were seriously disorganized at the start, because their established methods of work were not adapted to participation in the struggle, and many of their leaders were prisoners of war or had succeeded in entering England or the free countries beyond the Atlantic. Nevertheless, these organizations soon adjusted themselves to the situation and, before long, groups appeared which officially were engaged in nonpolitical activities such as sports, the drama, lectures, and excursions. These official activities permitted them to meet and to maintain contacts with other young Liberals. For instance, in the district of Brussels there were the following groups: the Blue Flower, the Daring Ping Pong Club, the Neo-Club, the Wings, the Comet, the Fan, the Berchem Sport Club, and others. The clandestine activities of these groups were directed by an executive committee of three members who never took part in the official meetings of the groups. They were Mr. Hendrick, Mr. N. Hougardy (national secretary of the Independence Front and now a member of the party's administrative office), and the author of this article. There was also a research committee composed of three members and of other young Liberals who worked on a postwar program. Among the devoted members of the committee we salute the memory of A.-H. Soulie, who died in a German prison after having been arrested three times. The contacts between the executive committee of the party and the young 21
25 citations
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TL;DR: The French judges are Professor Donnedieu de Vabres, a professor of law at the University of Paris and a specialist in international criminal law; and the alternate, Judge Robert Falco, of the Court of Cassation as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: man Birkett, who for a time was a leader of the criminal bar in England, and is now a judge of the high court in England. The Soviet judge is Major General Nikitchenko, Vice President of the Supreme Court, and his alternate is Lieutenant Colonel Volchkov of the Soviet District Court. The French judges are Professor Donnedieu de Vabres, a professor of law at the University of Paris and a specialist in international criminal law; and the alternate, Judge Robert Falco, of the Court of Cassation. All of them are eminent in their respective countries in this field, and impressed me----and I think impressed one another-as being persons of a distinctly judicial temperament. The twenty-one defendants sit on the other side, facing the judges. One of the persons indicted, Robert Ley, committed suicide; Krupp von Bohlen was found too sick to be tried; and Martin Bormann has never been found.
24 citations
TL;DR: The Wagner Act became law on July 5, 1935, and a new concept of industrial relations was charted for exploration and development as mentioned in this paper, and the vast majority of employers not only refused to recognize any such right, but fought unions lustily.
Abstract: WHEN the Wagner Act became law on July 5, 1935 a new concept of industrial relations was charted for exploration and development. Labor's right to organize had long been shrouded in legal uncertainties. The vast majority of employers not only refused to recognize any such right, but fought unions lustily. Congress believed that by protecting the right to organize and by requiring employers to bargain collectively, industrial peace would be achieved. The lawmakers believed also that with freedom to or-
24 citations
TL;DR: The field of intergroup relations is to be defined in very broad terms; it is not a separate segment of the curriculum or of life as discussed by the authors, and it is essential to state basic hypotheses and definitions assumed by the authors.
Abstract: to discharge more adequately its responsibilities for reducing social tensions and improving human relations in American society? Before suggesting certain promising lines of readjustment it is essential to state basic hypotheses and definitions assumed by the authors. The field of intergroup relations is to be defined in very broad terms; it is not a separate segment of the curriculum or of life.
21 citations
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TL;DR: The Revue du Travail was to help in conducting the inquiry desired by Mr. J. Wauters and to publish all interesting documents and data as mentioned in this paper, which was done more or less well, but after the Minister left, the Office of Cooperatives remained in a formative state.
Abstract: information and statistics relating to cooperatives. The Revue du Travail was to help in conducting the inquiry desired by Mr. J. Wauters and to publish all interesting documents and data. This was done more or less well, but after the Minister left, the Office of Cooperatives remained in a formative state. Therefore I cannot give a fair sketch of the true strength of the co-operatives at that time, however much I wish to do so. The latest statistics that I could
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors define the protection of human rights in mandated territories under the League of Nations under the San Francisco Charter as a "trative practice" and present an approach to answer these questions.
Abstract: trative practice. To answer them finally is a task for the future. But these questions are also of special and immediate interest to the author of this study. Asked by the editors of this volume to discuss the "protection of human rights in mandated territories under the League of Nations," I must first define my subject. And that I can do only in the light of their intentions, which I take to be identical with those of the drafters of the relevant clauses of the San Francisco Charter.
TL;DR: The racial question represents a dilemma for both white men and Negroes as mentioned in this paper, and many conflictful conscious and unconscious feelings war with each other in a complex psychological relationship, in which many of the constituent elements are unconscious.
Abstract: The racial question represents a dilemma for both white men and Negroes. For each group many conflictful conscious and unconscious feelings war with each other. Between the two groups there is a complex psychological relationship, in which many of the constituent elements are unconscious. The universal conflict of all human beings is between passive dependent longings (that is, a wish for security, the need to be loved) and aggressive, narcissistic desires, but into this fundamental conflict there enter many subsidiary motives. The methods by which any individual or group attempts to reach a satisfactory compromise solution for the two drives
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that trade unions have a public obligation to practice democracy in their internal affairs because of their protection by law in organizing, in functioning free from employer coercion, and in bargaining collectively.
Abstract: BEYOND all other private associations, trade unions have a public obligation to practice democracy in their internal affairs because of their protection by law in organizing, in functioning free from employer coercion, and in bargaining collectively. Being now accorded these democratic rights, both the government and public opinion may properly exact of them, in turn, the practice of democracy in their own affairs.
TL;DR: In the case of the largest minority, the Negro, there have been two significant trends in the shift of population since 1915, a constant movement from rural to urban areas and from the South to the North and West as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: RACIAL tensions incident to housing have been most severe in times of large-scale migration of minorities. In recent years, the groups usually involved have been Negroes and Mexicans, and since Pearl Harbor, Japanese-Americans. In the case of the largest minority, the Negro, there have been two significant trends in the shift of population since 1915, a constant movement from rural to urban areas and from the South to the North and West.
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TL;DR: The Parti Socialiste Belge as discussed by the authors was founded by the editors of the Monde du Travail ("The World of Labor") at Liege and the Clandestin at Brussels, both in the middle of July 1940.
Abstract: The Socialist Party, founded in 1885 with the title of the Belgian Workers Party, at first rallied around the clandestine press, the Socialists having been the first to establish underground newspapers-the Monde du Travail ("The World of Labor") at Liege and the Clandestin at Brussels, both in the middle of July 1940. In August 1940 the editors of these newspapers in company with their Flemish colleagues decided to re-establish regional branches of the party under the title of Parti Socialiste Belge. For practical reasons they set up threedivisions-the Walloon, the Flemish, and the Brussels divisions. Soon nu-
TL;DR: A general diffusion of the advantages of education is, to quote the constitution of Maine, "essential to the preservation of the rights and liberties of the people." Literacy, which opens the door to the accumulated knowledge and thought of mankind, is necessary to vitalize freedom of speech.
Abstract: "A general diffusion of the advantages of education" is, to quote the constitution of Maine, "essential to the preservation of the rights and liberties of the people." Literacy, which opens the door to the accumulated knowledge and thought of mankind, is necessary to vitalize freedom of speech. As society grows more complex, education becomes the sine qua non of reasonable equality of opportunity for each individual. The gravity of the problems confronting modern statesmanship and the ever growing need for new technical skills also give the general diffusion of education a significance for society unparalleled in earlier periods of human development. Disraeli's quip, "We must educate our masters," states the problem only in part; universal education is essential for the efficient
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TL;DR: The Catholic Low Countries, corresponding approximately to present Belgium, remained successively under Spanish and Austrian domination, and were politically and economically isolated for more than two centuries as discussed by the authors, after the religious conflict aroused by the Reformation had led to the secession of the seven Protestant and republican provinces of the north.
Abstract: the Low Countries was in Flanders, with Bruges as its center. After the religious conflict aroused by the Reformation had led to the secession of the seven Protestant and republican provinces of the north, the Catholic Low Countries, corresponding approximately to present Belgium, remained successively under Spanish and Austrian domination, and were politically and economically isolated for more than two centuries. Their intellectual life
TL;DR: In this article, the authors trace roughly the most important factors which led to the desolate situation in which the returning Government found the country’s finances in May 1945 and present a complete picture of the influence of the war on the financial situation of the Netherlands.
Abstract: THE time has not yet come when a complete picture can be given of the influence of the war on the financial situation of the Netherlands. The war is over, yet its results are still at work and it will be some time before the situation becomes in some degree normalized. Nevertheless, it is possible to trace roughly the most important factors which led to the desolate situation in which the returning Government found the country’s finances in May 1945. At the same time-and this is
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TL;DR: The report of the Peace Officers Committee on Civil Disturbances, a body appointed by the Governor of California following the "zoot suit" riots in Los Angeles in 1943 as mentioned in this paper, states that the responsibility of police in controlling group prejudice has been nowhere more positively stated than in the Report of the PEOC.
Abstract: T HE responsibility of police in controlling group prejudice has been nowhere more positively stated than in the Report of the Peace Officers Committee on Civil Disturbances, a body appointed by the Governor of California following the "zoot suit" riots in Los Angeles in 1943. Under the chairmanship of Attorney General Robert W. Kenny of California, this Committee of eight high-ranking peace officers stated:
TL;DR: The United Nations Charter is dedicated to the achievement and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms as mentioned in this paper, and it includes the wider range of political ideals and aspirations, as seen through observation, experience, and reflection.
Abstract: coveries and role of human intelligence in human affairs, of which the new research in atomic energy is the symbol. A further factor is, of course, that some of the elements of a world bill of rights are already embodied in the structure of the United Nations Charter. President Truman says, "The Charter is dedicated to the achievement and observance of human rights and fundamental freedoms. Unless we can obtain these objectives for all men and women everywhere-without regard to race, language or religion-we cannot have permanent peace and security." 1 These new conditions profoundly affect any bill of rights in our day, for they are revolutionary in nature-far more revolutionary than any other world revolution. The increasing recognition of the dignity of man and the importance of protecting him under new economic and social conditions, the events of World War II, the emergence of the atomic bomb, a mark of the revolutionary triumphs of human intelligence in social relationships-these factors are a sharp challenge to those who frame an adequate statement of the rights of man in the twentieth century. The ends of government remain unchanged in the midst of these alarms. Security, justice, order, welfare, freedom are universal ends of political behavior, as seen through observation, experience, and reflection. But they are applied under new conditions from time to time as basic changes are made in social, economic, cultural conditions and in political perspectives. Obviously, there are many value systems other than the political-the religious, the cultural, the artistic; and a bill of rights will deal with those in the area of the governmental. But the political is not limited to the legal in the formal sense. It includes the wider range of political ideals and aspirations. Indeed, a recognition of the pluralism of values is one of the basic conditions of world order in particular. Our present task is to place the political values of human rights in their proper governmental setting as a part of the general understandings upon which world order is built.
TL;DR: This article pointed out that the basic reason why Negroes gained so much is that they had so far to go. And even at the height of the war boom, they were far from achieving their goal of economic parity, nor did they achieve their goals of achieving economic parity.
Abstract: ALONG with the rest of Americans, Negroes did relatively well during the war. Not only did Negro employment increase by an estimated two million, but the type of jobs held by Negroes changed drastically for the better.’ As noteworthy as the advances of Negroes were, they should not be exaggerated.. The basic reason why Negroes gained so much is that they had so far to go. Even at the height of the war boom, they were far from achieving their goal of economic parity, nor did
TL;DR: The Geneva Convention as mentioned in this paper was proposed by German and Polish delegations under the chairmanship of a Swiss statesman (President Calonder) and with the help of the League of Nations Secretariat, followed the recommendations which the Council of the United Nations considered inseparable from its decision to divide the industrial territory of Upper Silesia between Germany and Poland.
Abstract: THE Geneva Convention, drafted in 1922 by German and Polish delegations under the chairmanship of a Swiss statesman (President Calonder) and with the help of the League of Nations Secretariat, followed the recommendations which the Council of the League considered inseparable from its decision to divide the industrial territory of Upper Silesia between Germany and Poland. The object of the convention was twofold: to secure the continuity of the economic and social existence of Upper Silesia, and to reduce to a minimum the inconveniences of readjustment. It laid down legislation effective for fifteen years to obviate the evil consequences (economic and social in the first instance, political in the end) which threatened to follow upon the dangerous operation of partition. Its basic assumption was the necessity of guaranteeing a number of individual rights in order to maintain economic prosperity and peace in the partitioned area. This the convention carried further than any territorial settlement had ever done before. Under the conditions un-
TL;DR: The difference in emphasis between the two documents can be explained by the influence of public opinion, resulting from extended public examination of the Dumbarton Oaks Proposals both here and overseas, that led this Government and the other sponsoring powers to propose amendments as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Why is there such a marked difference in emphasis between the two documents ? What happened in the months which intervened? It is true that the Charter is a finished constitutional document, whereas the Dumbarton Oaks Proposals were preliminary in form; but that is, I think, only a partial explanation. It was primarily the influence of public opinion, resulting from extended public examination of the Dumbarton Oaks Proposals both here and overseas, that led this Government and the other sponsoring powers to propose amendments at the San Francisco Conference which introduced the hu-
TL;DR: In this article, the author is interested less in grinding his own ax than in sharpening the blade of science, and this is why, in my opinion, this is one of the few very important studies in the recent literature on the nature of industrial relations and their significance for contemporary society.
Abstract: sonal sympathies from interfering with his analysis. The general conclusions to which Professor Moore is led are implied in the description of the facts in the light of sociological theory. That is why, in my opinion, this is one of the few very important studies in the recent literature on the nature of industrial relations and their significance for contemporary society. The author is interested less in grinding his own ax than in sharpening the blade of science. NATHANIEL CANTOR
TL;DR: In the early 20th century, a government committee regulated these 4,500 vehicles, and official inspectors saw that they ran on time and complied with the safety requirements as mentioned in this paper, and the tramcars, originally steam-driven, were being gradually replaced by buses.
Abstract: On the outer lines, the modern Dieselelectrics furnished rapid service. Although they ran less frequently, they were as accurately timed as their counterparts on the central system. They covered their 700 kilometers several times a day. The steam trains, kept in good repair, also rendered rapid and dependable service. At the junctions they were met by small locals, which were gradually being replaced by buses. The gay-colored, shining buses covered the country with a network of lines. They reached into every tiny hamlet, serving it several times a day, maintaining exact schedules. There were also large excursion buses, attractive in appearance, which offered delightful sight-seeing trips at low cost. A government committee regulated these 4,500 vehicles, and official inspectors saw that they ran on time and complied with the safety requirements. The tramcars, originally steam-driven, were being gradually replaced by buses except in the cities, and those that remained were electrified.
TL;DR: The strategy of our enemies to play upon our internal tensions and conflicts and thus to divide and conquer has been frustrated as discussed by the authors, and the United States stands on the threshold of peace, victorious and powerful but troubled.
Abstract: United States stands on the threshold of peace, victorious and powerful but troubled. The strategy of our enemies to play upon our internal tensions and conflicts and thus to divide and conquer has been frustrated. Our internal unity proved to be a military asset matched in importance only by our vast material resources. Had we not been able to close ranks within, we probably would not have been able to translate our industrial and military potential into the decisive instrument of Allied victory.