Showing papers in "Australian Psychologist in 2004"
TL;DR: A critical review of research into the notion of psychological resilience and its implications for studies of disadvantaged young people is provided in this paper, where a number of significant conceptual and methodological challenges are examined, the most important of these being the difficulties associated with the operationalisation of resilience, the development of culturally relevant thresholds and the circularity inherent in commonly used definitions.
Abstract: This paper provides a critical review of research into the notion of psychological resilience and its implications for studies of disadvantaged young people. A number of significant conceptual and methodological challenges are examined, the most important of these being the difficulties associated with the operationalisation of resilience, the development of culturally relevant thresholds and the circularity inherent in commonly used definitions. The limitations and potential value of integrated theoretical models, such as Brofenbrenner's ecological model and Bandura's self-efficacy theory are considered, along with suggestions for methodological strategies to enhance the validity and comprehensiveness of resilience research.
182 citations
TL;DR: This article investigated the factor structure of the Parenting Sense of Competence Scale (PSOC) with an Australian sample of 849 mothers and 329 fathers and found that the Satisfaction factor was strongly correlated with measures of child behaviour, parent wellbeing, and parenting style.
Abstract: Investigation of the factor structure of the Parenting Sense of Competence Scale (PSOC) was conducted with an Australian sample of 849 mothers and 329 fathers. Two factors of Satisfaction and Efficacy were found that were largely consistent with previous research. In addition, a third factor reflecting interest in the parenting role emerged. The Satisfaction factor was strongly correlated with measures of child behaviour, parent wellbeing, and parenting style. Efficacy and Interest showed few correlations with these variables. Parent and child gender were not related to factor scores and child age showed a small relationship with PSOC scores for very young children. Use of the revised scale with separate scoring keys for mothers and fathers is recommended.
171 citations
TL;DR: This paper found that people who had strong individualistic values and beliefs within an individualistic culture would have smaller social support networks, lower emotional competence, lower intentions to seek help from a variety of sources, and poorer mental health.
Abstract: Based on past cross-cultural research, it was hypothesised that people who had strong individualistic values and beliefs within an individualistic culture would have smaller social support networks, lower emotional competence, lower intentions to seek help from a variety of sources, and poorer mental health. A total of 276 first-year students attending an Australian university completed an anonymous survey assessing individual differences in individualism (i.e., idiocentrism), social support, emotional competence, hopelessness, depression, and suicide ideation. As expected, idiocentrism was associated with smaller and less satisfying social support networks, less skill in managing both self and others' emotions, lower intentions to seek help from family and friends for personal and suicidal problems, and higher levels of hopelessness and suicide ideation. Thus, there appear to be social and psychological disadvantages associated with having strong individualistic values and beliefs within an individualist...
68 citations
TL;DR: This article described the validation of a 30-item affective instrument designed initially to measure the attitudes of school principals in government schools in Queensland toward the inclusion of students with disabilities in regular schools.
Abstract: This paper describes the validation of a 30-item affective instrument designed initially to measure the attitudes of school principals in government schools in Queensland toward the inclusion of students with disabilities in regular schools The original response pool consisted of 644 returns The data validation demonstrated that this was a reliable and valid scale Subsequent factor analyses yielded a six-factor solution An examination of the item metrics and an interpretation of the factor items resulted in a decision to delete six items and one factor The final scale of 24 items and five factors has very acceptable construct validity and psychometric properties and should be valuable in further investigations of attitudes toward inclusive education
56 citations
TL;DR: In this article, practical guidelines are offered that relate to provision of education and training via videoconferencing in the discipline of psychology, as well as a discussion of some of the practical considerations in its use.
Abstract: Telehealth has been around for a long time. Currently, its application is dominated by mental health and predominantly by the discipline of psychiatry. Telepsychology refers to the use of technology-assisted means to provide psychological services. One such technological approach, videoconferencing, enables the provision of psychological services via a live, interactive two-way video – audio system. Videoconferencing is used extensively in Australia but the discipline of psychology is yet to fully embrace the technology. A possible explanation for this is the lack of information and discussion specific to the discipline of psychology as to the effectiveness of the technology and issues relating to its use for provision of psychological services. This paper attempts to provide such information relevant to psychologists as well as a discussion of some of the practical considerations in its use. Specifically, practical guidelines are offered that relate to provision of education and training via videoconfere...
54 citations
TL;DR: The notion of socially accountable psychology has been employed by as mentioned in this paper to explore the whiteness of psychological epistemologies in a multicultural society, and to develop an understanding of the ways that white systems of representation shape pedagogy and practice.
Abstract: In this paper I employ the notion of a “socially accountable psychology” (Davidson, 1998) to explore the whiteness of psychological epistemologies. I suggest that within a multicultural society psychology needs to develop an understanding of the ways that white systems of representation shape pedagogy and practice. In order to do this, I first outline the ways in which the discipline may be conceptualised as a cultural practice that is both informed by, and constitutive of, racialised practices in Australia. I then outline a constructionist approach to understanding psychical processes that values multiple, contextual understandings of knowledge production. I conclude by suggesting that we as white psychologists need to pay particular attention to the “politics of therapy”, and the privileges that we hold.
49 citations
TL;DR: This paper examined the effects of a victim impact statement (VIS) and gender on decision-making in a heinous murder trial, and found that male defendants received harsher sentences than females when no VIS was presented, while the female offender's sentence was unaffected.
Abstract: This study examined the effects of a victim impact statement (VIS) and gender on decision-making. A total of 238 jury-eligible participants from the community were randomly assigned to one of eight versions of a heinous murder trial, based on a real case. Half the participants received a VIS, while the remainder did not. In addition, the design manipulated offender and victim gender. When no VIS was presented, male defendants received harsher sentences than females. The inclusion of the VIS decreased the disparity, resulting in a more severe sentence for the female, while the male offender's sentence was unaffected. The harsher sentence appeared to be the result of an increase in the perceived deviancy (as measured by volition and future dangerousness) of the female offender, due to the VIS. This interpretation was supported by the higher ratings of “anger” against the female defendant when the VIS was included. The sentences rendered by male jurors were predicted by the ratings of “future dangerousness”,...
42 citations
TL;DR: The authors reviewed the cross-cultural research published in the two journals of the Australian Psychological Society over the last 20 years and found that the majority of first authors were located in Australia; the range of research was diverse; the majority were atheoretical and problem-centered; there were no articles that solely used a qualitative methodology; and the majority (89%) used an imposed etic method.
Abstract: Good cross-cultural research should involve researchers who are familiar with the culture they are studying. One way this can be achieved is by conducting qualitative research. The aim of this article is to review the cross-cultural research published in the two journals of the Australian Psychological Society over the last 20 years. The review used five coding categories. Results indicated that the majority of first authors were located in Australia; the range of research was diverse; the majority of articles were atheoretical and problem-centered; there were no articles that solely used a qualitative methodology; and the majority (89%) used an imposed etic method. After describing this research a nine-step model for conducting more effective cross-cultural research was proposed.
35 citations
TL;DR: It is concluded that CISD and CISM are indistinct approaches to trauma and should be treated as synonymous terms (CISD/M) until the necessary and sufficient elements of each are fully declared.
Abstract: Mitchell (2004) and Robinson (2004) have expressed concerns regarding our recent article on debriefing (Devilly & Cotton, 2003) In this article we respond to their concerns, some scientific, some sociopolitical, and provide further substantiation regarding our conclusions We conclude that CISD and CISM are indistinct approaches to trauma and should be treated as synonymous terms (CISD/M) until the necessary and sufficient elements of each are fully declared Furthermore, based upon current evidence, we restipulate that CISD/M is an ineffective response to critical incidents for individuals, and that organisations need to revise their critical incident response policies to reflect the current weight of scientific evidence There are currently no reliable studies demonstrating the efficacy of group debriefing
33 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a descriptive analysis of the prevalence of depressive symptoms among a national cohort of young Australian women, and the characteristics of those who experience them, and explore the associations between demographic and health-related variables and depressive symptoms in a representative sample of 9333 Australian women aged 22 to 27 years.
Abstract: This paper presents a descriptive analysis of the prevalence of depressive symptoms among a national cohort of young Australian women, and the characteristics of those who experience them. It explores the associations between demographic and health-related variables and depressive symptoms in a representative sample of 9333 Australian women aged 22 – 27 years, from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health. Approximately 30% of these young women indicated that they were experiencing depressive symptoms, as indicated by the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D-10). After adjusting for age and rurality of residence, depressive symptoms were related to the following demographic variables: low income, low educational qualifications, a history of unemployment, not being in a relationship, and living arrangements other than living with a partner. Those health-related variables that were significantly associated with depressive symptoms included frequent visits to doctors and medi...
31 citations
TL;DR: In this article, age and years of education were identified as significantly impacting on performance on the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test and data were presented for three separate age groups (60, 69, 80, and 89 years) and two different education groups.
Abstract: Normative data from 203 community-dwelling older Australian adults are presented in relation to performance on the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test. Age and years of education were identified as significantly impacting on performance. Therefore, data are presented for three separate age groups (60 – 69 years; 70 – 79 years; 80 – 89 years) and two different lengths of education groups. Comparison between the performance of the Australian sample and an available U.S. sample indicates a generally comparable profile of performance on the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test.
TL;DR: Qualitative research suggests that the resources developed for Aboriginal people in the west Kimberley region were well accepted, fostered health discussions and contributed to the pride and self-esteem of local people.
Abstract: This research documents an evaluation of preventive health resources developed for Aboriginal people in the west Kimberley region. The project was a collaboration between The Jean Hailes Foundation for Women and Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal health workers, educators and artists from Looma, Pandanus Park, Derby and Mowanjum. Traditional art and language provided a basis for cultural identity and imparting modern health knowledge. Two health booklets and a video (Aminina Nud Mulumuluna – “You Gotta Look After Yourself” and Wungai Ngunga – “Women's Business”) were produced. Qualitative research suggests that the resources were well accepted, fostered health discussions and contributed to the pride and self-esteem of local people. Collaboration and the integration of traditional and modern health knowledge contributed to a contemporary view of Aboriginal health.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors evaluate the current literature regarding the efficacy of diversion strategies as an alternative to incarceration as a means of punishment for drug-related crime and highlight the need for more evaluations before solid conclusions can be drawn about the effectiveness of diversion schemes.
Abstract: There is considerable debate in the current literature, regarding the appropriateness and effectiveness of incarceration as a means of punishment for perpetrators of drug-related crime. Researchers have begun to question incarceration due to factors such as expanding prison populations, the economic burden placed upon society, the negative consequences and side-effects for offenders, and the apparent ineffectiveness of incarceration as a long-term crime prevention technique. New approaches to tackling the problems of drug-related offences, such as diversion strategies, have been proposed. The literature to date suggests that diversion strategies may be effective in reducing crime and rehabilitating offenders. However, there are recognised limitations to this approach, highlighting the need for more evaluations before solid conclusions can be drawn about the effectiveness of diversion schemes. The aim of this review is to evaluate the current literature regarding the efficacy of diversion strategies as an ...
TL;DR: This article examined the operation of whiteness as a normative framework for Indigenous and non-indigenous relations and reconciliation in Australia and found that race marked the lives of Indigenous people while "whiteness" as race remained uninterrogated.
Abstract: For the past decade, reconciliation has been an issue for contemporary debate in Australia. A discursive approach (Potter & Wetherell, 1987) was employed in this study to examine the operation of whiteness as a normative framework for Indigenous and non-indigenous relations and reconciliation in Australia. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with young Indigenous and non-indigenous Australians concerning their understanding and experience of reconciliation. The analysis identified that reconciliation in Australia was located within a context in which race and racism were important considerations and the first part of this paper examines how participants managed the issue of race in Australian society. It was demonstrated that race marked the lives of Indigenous people while “whiteness” as race remained uninterrogated. Talk around race drew on discursive resources that denied the impact of racism and deracialised difference. In particular, reconciliation was framed in a discursive repertoire of “comm...
TL;DR: The article by Devilly and Cotton as discussed by the authors misrepresents many aspects of the current field of knowledge and practice of critical incident stress management (CISM) and Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD).
Abstract: The July 2003 edition of the Australian Psychologist was dedicated to a state-of-the-art description of occupational stress and wellbeing. It contained an article on psychological debriefing by Devilly and Cotton (2003), that misrepresents many aspects of the current field of knowledge and practice of Critical Incident Stress Management (CISM) and Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD). The authors inappropriately generalise from a few very flawed studies of single session, once-off, individual debriefings to CISM, which operates in the workplace. Allegations are made of unethical and bad practices without substantiation. This paper addresses these and other issues raised by the article. As well, it asserts the value, to both individuals and organisations, of properly run CISM programs and CISD interventions.
TL;DR: Intervention consisted of a cognitive behavioural program aimed at improving mood, functional capacity, and quality of life in patients presenting with chronic pain, using a prospective controlled cohort study.
Abstract: A program for enhancing the management of patients presenting with chronic pain is described, using a prospective controlled cohort study The participants were 152 outpatients referred to a tertiary centre pain clinic Intervention consisted of a cognitive behavioural program aimed at improving mood, functional capacity, and quality of life Data from outcome measures were obtained before and after treatment and compared with data obtained from 48 waitlisted patients Multivariate analysis of variance demonstrated a significant statistical difference between treated patients and controls as a result of the program, although clinical improvement was modest
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present normative data for an ageing, female, Australian-born population, and an analysis of the factors that contribute to variation in performance of working memory and executive function.
Abstract: Normative data for tests of working memory and executive function (a term adopted to cover a range of cognitive skills) are primarily based on the U.S. population and are not always specific for gender or education levels. The diagnosis of, and research into, cognitive diseases rely on the use of relevant normative data. This study presents normative data for an ageing, female, Australian-born population, and an analysis of the factors that contribute to variation in performance. Three tasks of executive function: Trail Making Test, Part B (Trails-B); Tower of London, and the oral version of the Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT), and a working memory task (Letter-Number Sequencing, LNS) were administered as part of a 14-item neuropsychological battery to 257 participants (M age = 60 years, range = 56 – 67 years), who have been participating in the Melbourne Women's Midlife Health Project. The Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) was also administered. A regression analysis incorpo...
TL;DR: Results suggest that telephone reminders may be effective for first appointments, especially when made to females and landlines, and are a sound basis for improving the viability of Australian university-based community clinics.
Abstract: Previous research has identified non-attendance in community clinics as a serious problem, especially in terms of viability of these clinics. Yet, the same research offers little clarification about how to combat these non-attendance rates. The current study was an initiative at the University of South Australia School of Psychology Clinic, which sought to reduce the non-attendance rate through the use of telephone reminders for appointments in the following week. Reminders were made during alternating weeks to determine whether there was any impact on the rates of non-attendance in general and for first appointments only. Other factors investigated included age, gender, socioeconomic status and the type of telephone number. Results suggest that telephone reminders may be effective for first appointments, especially when made to females and landlines. These findings clarify previous studies and are a sound basis for improving the viability of Australian university-based community clinics.
TL;DR: This paper found that minority culture American adolescents tend to undergo a process of exploration of their cultural roots leading to achieved identification following self-challenging experiences such as racism, but not necessarily ethnic or cultural identity.
Abstract: The study addressed cultural identity in minority culture adolescents living in rural and remote regions of North Queensland, Australia. The stage-wise nature of cultural identity construction as proposed by Phinney (1993) was of particular interest. The author found that minority culture American adolescents tend to undergo a process of exploration of their cultural roots leading to achieved identification following self-challenging experiences such as racism. Of interest was to clarify whether minority culture Australian adolescents undergo a similar process. Phinney's (1992) predicted relationship between racism and identity, when mediated by active cultural background exploration was supported for visibly ethnic adolescents only. The study concluded that Phinney's model succeeds in predicting racial identity, but not necessarily ethnic or cultural identity.
TL;DR: In this article, a response to the Devilly and Cotton article on psychological debriefing expresses concern that the authors have misrepresented important factual information regarding psychological deb-riefing.
Abstract: This response to the Devilly and Cotton article on psychological debriefing expresses concern that the authors have misrepresented important factual information regarding psychological debriefing. Of particular concern is the intermingling of the terms “debriefing”, “psychological debriefing”, “Critical Incident Stress Debriefing” (CISD), and Critical Incident Stress Management (CISM) as if they were synonymous. Great concern is articulated in this response that Devilly and Cotton have included unsubstantiated and unscientific rhetoric within what should be a scientific article. Efforts are made to counterbalance the distortions of the Devilly and Cotton article by presenting accurate information regarding the field of Critical Incident Stress Management (CISM) and its specific small group intervention, Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD).
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the relationship between hardiness and assimilation to the Australian culture, and found that more hardy individuals reported lower levels of stress, while first generation migrants did not appear to be hardier than second generation migrants.
Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between hardiness and assimilation to the Australian culture, and the relationship between hardiness and levels of perceived stress among first- and second-generation Latin American migrants living in Melbourne, Australia. The participants consisted of 41 men and 47 women, with a mean age of 34.75 years (SD = 9.75 years). Second generation migrants reported higher levels of perceived stress, which was associated with higher levels of assimilation. Hardiness and levels of perceived stress were associated, because more hardy individuals reported lower levels of stress. However, first generation migrants did not appear to be hardier than second generation migrants. The implications of the study are discussed.
TL;DR: The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and Wechschler Memory Scale (WMS) offer some decided advantages over the previous versions. as discussed by the authors discusses the research on the updated versions with reference to the continuity of construct validity across versions.
Abstract: The latest versions of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS) offer some decided advantages over the previous versions. This article discusses the research on the updated versions of the tests with reference to the continuity of construct validity across versions. In addition, there have been some concerns reported about the use of the WAIS-III and WMS-III in Australia due to the absence of local norms. These issues are discussed with reference to data collected in various countries including published factor-analytic research. Other evidence reviewed includes studies on malingering and the effects of clinical conditions such as traumatic brain injury on intellectual and memory performance. These studies support the utility and validity of the WAIS-III and WMS-III in the evaluation of diverse clinical conditions. The recently updated technical manual includes additional data such as discrepancy base rates, and reviews additional recent research utilising the WAIS-III ...
TL;DR: The authors found that Greek families were more intrusive and emotionally overinvolved in their relatives' life compared to the Anglo-Saxons, while Greek families also showed stronger behaviour control, which may reflect cultural differences in family structure.
Abstract: Expressed emotion (EE) is a description of family communication and interaction patterns, relating to criticism, hostility and emotional overinvolvement; and has proven to be a valuable predictor of the course and outcome of schizophrenia. Scores on Friedman and Goldstein's (1993) adjective checklist; the Level of Expressed Emotion Scale; and the Family Assessment Device were compared between Greek (n = 7) versus Anglo-Saxon (n = 9) relatives of individuals with schizophrenia. Greeks were more intrusive and emotionally overinvolved in their relatives' life compared to the Anglo-Saxons. Greek families also showed stronger behaviour control, which may reflect cultural differences in family structure. These findings support the notion that differences in parental styles of communication exist between ethnic groups, with potential to influence outcomes for individuals with psychopathology.
TL;DR: Members of an anxiety disorders self-help group were surveyed to provide a better understanding of the members of these organisations in Australia and thereby assist psychologists providing for their needs.
Abstract: Members of an anxiety disorders self-help group were surveyed to provide a better understanding of the members of these organisations in Australia and thereby assist psychologists providing for their needs. Thirty-four members of the West Australian Anxiety Self-Help Association (ASHA) completed an open-ended survey asking about the type of professionals from which help was sought, the length of time before a diagnosis was made, the type of treatment received and the type of treatment that was preferred. Responses were then classified into categories for analysis. The membership of the Australian group was comparable to U.S. studies. Most members (88%) initially consulted a general practitioner about their anxiety disorder. It took 4.7 visits to health professionals over 3 years before a diagnosis of an anxiety disorder was made. The most commonly provided treatment was medication, with 91% being prescribed medication at some point, and one third were not happy with their current medication. Nearly all of...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors focus on Australia as one of the most culturally diverse societies in the world and on how cultural diversity impacts on the work of psychologists, especially those of non-English speaking backgrounds.
Abstract: This paper focuses on Australia as one of the most culturally diverse societies in the world and on how cultural diversity impacts on the work of psychologists. Psychological issues concerning migrants, especially those of non-English speaking backgrounds, are raised. The paper discusses challenges in the field of mental health and calls for more awareness and sensitivity of other cultural practices. The paper also raises psychological research issues related to cultural diversity. The role of psychologists in reconciliation issues and social harmony management is outlined. Finally, the role of psychologists in education and training, and the ways to deal with racism, are discussed.
TL;DR: Wang et al. as discussed by the authors examined the relationship between personality, cognitive and social orientations and subjective wellbeing (SWB) among Chinese students and found that neuroticism, collectivist, individualist and fatalist orientations were significant predictors of SWB.
Abstract: This study examined the relationships between personality, cognitive and social orientations and subjective wellbeing (SWB) among Chinese students Two hundred and one students in China completed a battery of questionnaires on SWB, personality, cognitive and social orientations The results showed that the students have a medium level of SWB, significantly more collectivist than individualist orientation, more future than present orientation on enjoyment, and more self-created than fatalist orientation on the resources of happiness Regression analyses showed that neuroticism, collectivist and fatalist orientations were significant predictors of SWB, and cognitive and social orientations made additional contribution to the variance of SWB In addition, a path analysis showed that orientation variables mediated the influence of personality on SWB
TL;DR: A brief measure of functional English proficiency intended for use in health survey research and particularly with older adults, with capacity to discriminate between high and low levels of proficiency in all language groups.
Abstract: Through three studies we develop a brief measure of functional English proficiency intended for use in health survey research and particularly with older adults. The samples involved in these studies included adults aged 18 to 93 years whose language of origin was Turkish (n = 497, 53% women); Macedonian (n = 209, 49% women); Spanish (n = 205, 68% women); Italian (n = 212, 52% women); Turkish (n = 201, 51% women), and Greek (n = 150, 53% women). The resulting instrument, comprising four items is a good brief measure of English proficiency, with capacity to discriminate between high and low levels of proficiency in all language groups.
TL;DR: The authors found that children as young as 6 years of age can conceptualise such basic human rights as freedom of speech and tolerance, and this was not observed among children between 6 and 7 years.
Abstract: Of particular importance for contemporary multicultural societies are basic human rights such as freedom of speech and tolerance. Studies show that children as young as 6 years of age can conceptualise such basic human rights as freedom of speech and tolerance. However, when freedom of speech is in conflict with other human rights or with tolerance, older adolescents and adults subordinated tolerance to freedom of speech. More specifically, students between 15 and 24 years subordinated racial tolerance to freedom of speech, with appeal to free speech increasing with age. In contrast, students between 9 and 12 years rarely subordinated tolerance to free speech, and this was never observed among students between 6 and 7 years. The findings have implications for education.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a review of Senior and Douglas's (2001) interpretative approach to the MMPI-2 and conclude that their approach is inconsistent and unsupported by the data they cited.
Abstract: The MMPI-2 is the most widely used clinical assessment instrument, in part, because it is the most widely researched instrument. One of the values of a well-established test such as the MMPI-2 is that past clinical interpretation strategies and underlying research documentation effectively guide the user in broad test applications. In a recent article, Senior and Douglas (2001) called into question traditional interpretive strategies and proposed their own approach to test interpretation. The present article reviews Senior and Douglas's (2001) rationale, methods, conclusions, and recommendations and concludes that their interpretative approach is inconsistent and unsupported by the data they cited.
TL;DR: Four ways in which the study of primates may inform reconstruction of the evolution of mind are discussed: fact-finding, phylogenetic reconstruction, analogy, and regression models.
Abstract: Humans are primates. We have evolved from common ancestors and the evolution of the human body is becoming increasingly clear as the archeological record expands. But for most people the gap between humans and animals lies in the mind, not in the body. And minds do not fossilise. To reconstruct the evolution of mind, scholars have thus increasingly looked to our closest relatives for clues. Here I discuss four ways in which the study of primates may inform such reconstruction: fact-finding, phylogenetic reconstruction, analogy, and regression models. Knowledge about primates can help us bridge the gap. Extinction of our closest relatives, on the other hand, would not only deplete that source of information but also increase the apparent differences between animal and human minds. It is likely that we have a long history of displacing closely related species, including the other hominids, leading us to appear ever more unique.