Showing papers in "Elementary School Journal in 1977"
TL;DR: The Kinder-Economy as mentioned in this paper is a teacher-guided program that introduces basic economic concepts to children in the primary grades through a program of action, simulation, and participation based on three precepts: 1 An important goal of education is to increase the decision-making skills of children at the earliest possible age 2 Children should be allowed to make
Abstract: University of California, Los Angeles Who is economically literate? Certainly not the young couple that took a second mortgage on their home at an annual interest rate of 18 percent Nor the black consumers in a low-income neighborhood who unknowingly pay for each grocery item from two cents to twenty cents more than their counterparts in a more affluent area Nor the three out of every four students in thirteen thousand junior high schools sampled throughout the USA who, in a recent survey by the Joint Council on Economic Education, were unable to differentiate between descriptions of a capitalistic economy and a socialistic economy Surely not the average citizen of the USA who, in another survey by the same Council, thought that the typical business made a profit of 50 percent or more on its investment (1) At what point must educators take action to create an economically literate citizenry? Kindergarten is not too soon! A primary education program, developed by the author (2) and piloted throughout California, has taken this vital first step The Kinder-Economy is a teacher-guided program that introduces basic economic concepts to children in the primary grades through a program of action, simulation, and participation based on three precepts: 1 An important goal of education is to increase the decision-making skills of children at the earliest possible age 2 Children should be allowed to make
76 citations
TL;DR: For instance, this paper found that early spelling attempts can reveal how children learn about written words, and that the results of these studies can reveal the early learning ability of children to recognize words.
Abstract: Oakland University Rochester, Michigan One important goal of reading instruction is to develop word-recognition skills in school children. Many teaching and diagnostic procedures have been used to determine how well beginning readers have mastered these skills. Teachers might assume that a child who spells went as WET needs help with ending blends or that a child who consistently spells ing as IN needs practice in recognizing ing. Recent studies, however, have raised questions about the validity of determining needs in word recognition by examining spelling performance. Several studies in the past five years have concluded that early spelling attempts can reveal how children learn about written words. The results of these
47 citations
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TL;DR: The Pledge of Allegiance was written for the 400th anniversary, in 1892, of the discovery of America, and was first recited by school children across the country as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Thirty-one words which affirm the values and freedom that the American flag represents are recited while facing the flag as a pledge of Americans’ loyalty to their country. The Pledge of Allegiance was written for the 400th anniversary, in 1892, of the discovery of America. A national committee of educators and civic leaders planned a public-school celebration of Columbus Day to center around the flag. Included with the script for ceremonies that would culminate in raising of the flag was the pledge. So it was in October 1892 Columbus Day programs that school children across the country first recited the Pledge of Allegiance this way:
43 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss the long-term effects of segregation of emotionally disturbed children for educational purposes in the literature and at professional meetings, and the lack of agreement among educators.
Abstract: educational provisions for mentally handicapped children (1). Emotionally disturbed children, for the purpose of this paper, are children of school age who do not require custodial care, have an intelligence quotient above 90, and exhibit excessive deviant behavior, ranging from hyperactive, impulsive responses to depressive and withdrawal behaviors. Most regular classroom teachers feel less than adequate in providing for the needs of emotionally disturbed children. Therefore, with increasing regularity, these children have been segregated for educational purposes in an attempt to provide them with the best opportunity to profit from their school experiences. Since the origin of special classes for emotionally disturbed children, the longterm effects of segregating the children for educational purposes have been discussed in the literature and at professional meetings. Despite the apparent controversy about this topic and the lack of agreement among educators, the number of classes and the number of children serviced by these classes have steadily increased. From 1962 to 1966, the number of states and territories of the USA reporting educational training programs for teachers working with disturbed children tripled (2). More recently, however, educators and civil rights proponents have called for integration of the handicapped for educational purposes, and legislation
36 citations
TL;DR: In evaluating the results of schooling in the United States, cognitive skills and intellectual achievement have been emphasized to the neglect of the affective side of children's development as discussed by the authors, and this apparent disregard for the impact that education may have on attitudes and values may not necessarily stem from any belief of educators that the affectative domain is un-
Abstract: Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois In evaluating the results of schooling in the United States, cognitive skills and intellectual achievement have been emphasized to the neglect of the affective side of children's development. This apparent disregard for the impact that education may have on attitudes and values may not necessarily stem from any belief of educators that the affective domain is un-
25 citations
TL;DR: Kohlberg as mentioned in this paper showed that moral reasoning develops through a culturally universal sequence of stages, each stage is characterized by an organized group of sociocognitive structures that represent the rules that govern the construction of moral judgments.
Abstract: ativistic limitations of earlier positions (4). Kohlberg's (1, 2) results indicate that moral reasoning develops through a culturally universal sequence of stages (2). Each stage is characterized by an organized group of sociocognitive structures that represent the rules that govern the construction of moral judgments. The development of these structures proceeds from a state that is characterized by reasoning heavily dependent on external influences to a state that is distinguished by the use of internalized ethical principles of justice, reciprocity, and respect. According to Kohlberg (5), the primary aim of moral education is to facilitate development through these stages. Kohlberg (6) proposes that development from one stage to another occurs when a child is confronted with contradictions to his moral thinking. This conflict causes disequilibrium that motivates the child to achieve new equilibrium. To reestablish equilibrium, the child has to restructure his thinking and move to a higher stage that allows a greater understanding of the new experience. Sources of conflict are found in social interaction, either real or simulated. Kohlberg (2) explains moral development as a process of taking different roles with respect to moral dilemmas. Moral development is stimulated by the opportunity to take different roles. Social interaction creates the opportunity for assuming roles that would cause disequilibrium between the individual's
21 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a study was made of one hundred books for children of preschool age through grade 3 to determine whether young children's literature contributes to this unfavorable view of old age, and they found that third-graders have a more pleasant view of young adults than of the elderly.
Abstract: Some negative feelings of children toward old age have been noted by researchers and critics. Children as young as six years of age are reported by Jacobs (3) to have unfavorable feelings about old people. Hickey and Kalish (4) found that third-graders have a more pleasant view of young adults than of the elderly. Simone de Beauvoir relates conversations with young girls in which they express their fears about growing old: " 'I shan't get that far ... I'll kill myself first' " (5: 4). To determine whether young children's literature contributes to this unfavorable view of old age, a study was made of one hundred books for children of preschool age through Grade 3. Literature was analyzed because it is an important means by which the attitudes and the values of a society are communicated to children (6: 7) at a time "before other socialization influences (such as school, teachers and peers) become more important .. ." (7: 1126-27).
18 citations
TL;DR: In a British primary school that uses multi-age grouping, each class would have an equal proportion of children of all the ages represented in the school as mentioned in this paper, where children's ages usually range from four and a half years to seven and half years.
Abstract: Bonny E. Ford Southern Methodist University Dallas, Texas Multiage grouping-also known as multigrade grouping, vertical grouping, vertical all-age grouping, and family groupinghas been described by Mary A. Mycock, who is deputy principal of England's Manchester College of Education and a specialist in research on the subject, as a method of school organization in which children of different ages are, as a deliberate educational policy, placed together in the same class (1). Virginia A. Stehney, a teacher of a multiage class in Kingsley School in Downers Grove, Illinois, defines multiage grouping as an "arrangement whereby children of various ages, abilities, and interests are put together in a learning situation in a school on the basis of philosophy, not from administrative convenience" (2). In a British primary school that uses multiage grouping each class would have an equal proportion of children of all the ages represented in the school. In these schools children's ages usually range from four and a half years to seven and a half years. British junior schools experimenting with this procedure are likely to form class groups of children from seven years of age to nine years, from nine years to eleven years, or even from seven years to eleven years. John Goodlad and Robert Anderson describe American
18 citations
TL;DR: McNutt et al. as discussed by the authors studied several commonly used approaches to the teaching of spelling in order to determine what programs, if any, are effective in aiding children to become proficient spellers.
Abstract: Gaye McNutt The University of Oklahoma Norman, Oklahoma In schools, formal spelling instruction usually begins at the end of Grade 1 or at the beginning of Grade 2. Regardless of when the teaching of spelling is initiated, the teacher will probably use one of the many basal spelling series that are commercially available. Less frequently, the pupil may simply be taught to spell words from lists that are supposedly geared to grade levels. Or spelling intruction may be individualized completely and integrated into an experience story reading program. Occasionally, spelling instruction is not attempted at all. The purpose of this investigation is to study several commonly used approaches to the teaching of spelling in order to determine what programs, if any, are effective in aiding children to become proficient spellers. The first phase of this study involved locating one hundred teachers in Grades 3 through 8 who agreed to take part in the investigation. These teachers were asked to administer the Test of Written Spelling (1) to their pupils and to specify the particular method they used to teach spelling. The results would give the researchers information on the spelling achievement of each child in the sample and on the method of instruction being used to teach spelling in a particular classroom. Pupils in Grades 1 and 2 were not included in the sample because the tests were administered at the beginning of the school year, and it was believed that firstand second-
18 citations
TL;DR: The Psychological Corporation New York, New York as discussed by the authors have brought increased attention to the affective domain in American education, and most current instructional materials include affective objectives and suggested activities designed expressly to increase pupils' interest in the school curriculum.
Abstract: The Psychological Corporation New York, New York Recent years have brought increased attention to the affective domain in American education. Most current instructional materials include affective objectives and suggested activities designed expressly to increase pupils' interest in the school curriculum. Most state lists of objectives or curricular guides or goals of education note the importance of pupils' affective reactions. The increased attention to instruction in the affective realm has been accom-
15 citations
TL;DR: Mavrogenes et al. as mentioned in this paper described the FLES (Foreign Languages in the Elementary School) programs and the results of these programs and presented evidence in support of FLES to indicate that foreign language learning relates to the needs or interests of children.
Abstract: Nancy A. Mavrogenes West High School Aurora, Illinois Since about 1967, pioneered by the Philadelphia public school system, an innovative program of a daily twenty-minute period of Latin instruction in the intermediate grades has produced solid results in children's language and reading performance. It is the purpose of this paper to describe these programs and the results. Evidence will also be presented in support of FLES (Foreign Languages in the Elementary School) to indicate "that foreign language learning relates to the needs or interests of children" (1: 543).
TL;DR: The physical setting in which children and teachers spend the day influences movement, behavior, and learning not merely in the early years, but in every year of the elementary school as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: the past, attention to the learning environment, and its conscious use to support teaching goals, were confined to early childhood and informal elementary-school programs. However, the physical setting in which children and teacher spend the day influences movement, behavior, and learning not merely in the early years, but in every year of the elementary school. It is important for teachers throughout the elementary school, in formal classrooms as well as informal classrooms, to have a clear understanding of the effect of the physical environment on children's learning and behavior.
TL;DR: This could have been an eyewitness account of the Boston Massacre in 1770 as mentioned in this paper, an account rendered not by a student or a guardsman or a newsman, but by a ten-year-old who was on campus on that tragic day.
Abstract: This could have been an eyewitness account of the Boston Massacre in 1770. In fact, it is an account of the 1970 Kent State shootings, an account rendered not by a student or a guardsman or a newsman, but by Steve, a ten-year-old who was on campus on that tragic day. Until recently, Steve's view, to say nothing of the views of ordinary folk like us, would never have been deemed important enough to be entered into the annals of history. Yet today there is a new breed of scholar, known as oral historians, who would consider our opinions and Steve's not only important, but essential, to the writing of history. History, as has been traditionally written, is lopsided. It has been the recording of events as seen solely through the eyes of kings and generals, never slaves and privates. History is top-heavy with views of bigwigs, while wanting in the experiences of little people. Yet those very people, however lowly their station in life, made the very events of history possible. History in general has been notoriously remiss with women, the poor, and other secondclass citizens. Educational history has particularly neglected those human beings on whom the entire educational enterprise is centered: students and teachers. Admittedly we have much research on children and teachers, yet rarely do we single out either to ask their impressions about events they have experienced, especially those events that have altered and shaped the destiny of American education-be they Kent State, the Great Depression, television, or Head Start.
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TL;DR: Groff as discussed by the authors argued that phoneme-letter correspondences in German were more predictable than in English may account for the geographic origin of phonics and proposed a phonics primer based on the notion that it was best to teach beginning readers to isolate speech sounds and then to say in serial order the phonemes represented by the letters of a word.
Abstract: Patrick Groff San Diego State University San Diego, California The history of opposition to the early, intensive teaching of phonics is almost as old as the origin of phonics itself. Historians of reading instruction agree that \"The first outstanding figure of the phonics school was a German, Valentin Ickelsamer\" (1: 26, 2:31). In 1527 he wrote a phonics primer based on the notion that it was best to teach beginning readers to isolate speech sounds, or phonemes, and then to say in serial order the phonemes represented by the letters of a word. \"Reading, according to Ickelsamer, was nothing more than naming the letters quickly and properly, that is, by their sounds not by their conventional names\" (2: 32). This was a remarkable breakthrough from the ABC method, which had children learn to read simply by naming the letters of a word. The fact that phoneme-letter correspondences in German were more predictable than in English may account for the geographic origin of phonics. Disagreements with the phonics method offered by Ickelsamer came within less than a century after his proposal. Lubinus offered \"the essence of the Whole
TL;DR: Niedermeyer as discussed by the authors pointed out that the person charged with responsibility for supervision, often the principal or the department head, simply makes scheduled or surprise visits to the classroom several times a year, often only once or twice.
Abstract: Fred C. Niedermeyer SWRL Educational Research and Development Los Alamitos, California Few will argue that school administrators should not be instructional leaders (1). Yet typically in the direct exercise of such leadership in most schools today, the person charged with responsibility for supervision, often the principal or the department head, simply makes scheduled or surprise visits to the classroom several times a year, often only once or twice (2). Observations made during the visits become the basis for one or two brief written
TL;DR: Kibby et al. as mentioned in this paper explored the effects of status within a group on the formation of children's attitudes toward reading, defined as verbal responses about reading and overt behaviors during reading.
Abstract: Michael W. Kibby State University of New York at Buffalo A major objective of any curriculum is to develop positive attitudes toward learning. The statement is a truism. Though the genesis of attitudes has been much discussed, \"empirical research on the origins, development, or formation of attitudes is not plentiful\" (1: 107). The purpose of the present study was to explore the effects of status within a group on the formation of children's attitudes toward reading. Attitudes, as defined in this study, are verbal responses about reading and overt behaviors during reading.
TL;DR: In the context of early language development, this article found that children who are linguistically different translate written language into their own dialect as they read, and their translation shows a high level of comprehension.
Abstract: ness, and in the special skills of visual discrimination required by reading. We might say that oral language is to reading as walking is to swimming. Whatever the differences, oral language and thought support reading proficiency, serving as background. If the child's oral language/thought differs from the printed message, the effect is inhibiting. Teachers who are aware of these contrasts in conciseness, abstractness, and redundancy can help make reading easier for children. 6. Social interaction Consider social interaction. Language development is supported by social interaction: reading instruction often leaves little room for dialoguing as a natural accompaniment to the child's learning. Consider some positive examples of social interaction. There is interaction when pairs of children dictate, write, and read, and when children use group procedures with literature (12: 198, 201, 204, 212, 220; 13). The activity called "Three in a Tub" encourages social feeling while learning. For this activity one teacher painted an old bathtub orange, tossed in some cushions, and decla ed it a reading center. Users had to abide by t ree rules: only three in the tub; keep reading; no splashing. 7. Correction of "errors" The next comparison between language acquisition and beginning reading deals with the instructor's correction of errors (or miscues) during learning. Correcting, controlling, and forcing the child to imitate and repeat apparently have not helped much in promoting early language development (14), but similar techniques seem to be typical in reading instruction. A tea her in a reading circle may say to a child, "No, the book says 'toward,' not 'to.' Read it again." Some errors a child makes stem from the rules or generalizations about language that he or she is exploring at a particular time. ("Yesterday I cutted my finger.") Errors of this kind do not mean that the child lacks basic, developing competence. When errors do not hinder comprehension, the miscues in reading deserve the same attention they usually get in conversational speech-no attention at all. Some teachers tend to jump on minor problems (or "non-problem problems"), failing to see the child's overall comprehension of the printed message. Fluent reading requires a willingness to risk mistakes or miscues. If the errors a child makes do interfere with comprehension, the way the teacher offers assistance-the emotional overtone-is crucial to the teacher-pupil relationship. A teacher who is knowledgeable about the development of language and thought in children and is not uptight about error can make learning to read easier for children. Consider especially children from linguistically different groups. These children may learn that to follow the rule "Be right as often as possible; be wrong as seldom as possible" means to be silent. It is This content downloaded from 157.55.39.139 on Sat, 26 Nov 2016 04:14:01 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 196 THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL JOURNAL hard to imagine learning a foreign language without making some mistakes. If learners of a foreign language are afraid to open their mouths they are not likely to learn. A language learner does not have to be right all the time in order to learn. Children who are linguistically different translate written language into their own dialect as they read. Minority children may read "be goin' disaway" for "going this way." Their translation shows a high level of comprehension. Some teachers do not recognize this achievement. The psychological laws of immediate, corrective feedback about rightness and wrongness, apparently so useful in shaping animal learning, are rarely if ever justifiable in language instruction. I do not mean that the teacher and the child never have a private conference to assess strengths and areas that need work. Some feedback to children about their hypotheses while reading helps them. Teachers need to give feedback when the child is ready for it and asks for it-not at all times. Some teachers evaluating tape recordings of a wide sampling of children reading orally count pauses, false starts, and stutterings as reading errors (15). This type of assessment is probably rooted in out-of-date teacher education. Some teachers need to value performance that is meaningful to the children and consistent with the author's basic (or deep structural) intent. Some of us need to take a fresh, developmental attitude toward reading
TL;DR: A review of the most relevant psychological theory and the most recent research on the enhancement of generosity and drawing implications for teaching can be found in this article, where some areas in need of further research are identified.
Abstract: University of Georgia Athens, Georgia Generosity-the sharing with or the helping of others for no apparent gain to oneself-is a highly valued trait among Americans. Historically teachers have tried to instill this trait in their young charges through example and exhortation. More recently, the values-clarification curriculum (1) has emphasized the understanding of one's values rather than a more direct exhortation to be generous. Regardless of the particular approach used to encourage generosity, information from psychological theory and research should help validate and refine these approaches by suggesting what particular aspects of any teaching plan are most powerful in encouraging generous behavior. This paper reviews the most relevant psychological theory and the most recent research on the enhancement of generosity and draws implications for teaching. In addition, areas in need of further research are identified.
TL;DR: Melaragno as mentioned in this paper discusses the idea of using pupils as tutors for other pupils and the long history of tutoring by children in the curriculum and how to use it in the classroom.
Abstract: Ralph J. Melaragno System Development Corporation Santa Monica, California The idea of using pupils as tutors for other pupils has a long history. During much of that history, tutoring by pupils was part of the folklore of educational practice. The descriptions of tutoring that appeared in the literature were largely anecdotal, and pupil tutoring in classrooms was a natural process. Recently, experts have given more serious attention to tutoring by pupils, and the tutoring has been related to two educational concerns: what to do about the in-
TL;DR: Karen Kepler and Jill Weinick as discussed by the authors have visited elementary schools in the New York area and have been struck by their uniformity, while busing, budget cuts, basic skills, and book bannings have been making headlines.
Abstract: Karen Kepler Jill Weinick Randall Teachers College, Columbia University New York, New York In visiting elementary schools in the New York area, we have been struck by their uniformity. Just a few years ago an exciting variety flourished. While busing, budget cuts, basic skills, and book bannings have been making headlines, a major instructional change has been taking over without much publicity. Reports from California, Illinois, and Massachusetts indicate that the change is not unique to metropolitan New York. A fill-in-the-blank, circle-the-answer
TL;DR: The importance of routinely estimating the influence that an impulsive, impatient response pattern has on performance is underscored by four major research findings: 1. Approximately 30 percent of preschool and elementary-school children are impulsive as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: quently, remedial programs rarely stress systematic procedures for reducing impulsivity. The importance of routinely estimating the influence that an impulsive, impatient response pattern has on performance is underscored by four major research findings: 1. Approximately 30 percent of preschool and elementary-school children are impulsive (1, 2). 2. On measures of word recognition (3), arithmetic achievement (4), and inductive reasoning (5), the performance of impulsive children is significantly poorer than the performance of their reflective peers. 3. Impulsivity significantly and adversely influences performance in situations in which the correct answer is not immediately obvious and must be selected from already available or self-generated alternatives (6). 4. Efforts to modify the propensity of impulsive children to act impatiently have been successful in making them more reflective and more accurate in their responses (7, 8). The last three findings strongly suggest
TL;DR: The tendency for the field of education to be dominated by the means and the ends of the natural sciences is not new, but for the sake of brevity I shall arbitrarily limit my discussion to events dating from the post-Sputnik period.
Abstract: conscious acceptance of a concept of education that is at times not only impractical and unrealistic but also possibly impoverishing to the design and the evaluation of educational programs. This tendency for the field of education to be dominated by the means and the ends of the natural sciences is not new, but for the sake of brevity I shall arbitrarily limit my discussion to events dating from the post-Sputnik period. For, as I will attempt to demonstrate, the Soviet launch of Sputnik initiated a rekindling of the fervor that marked the earlier period of domination by the natural sciences. I shall first trace some of the events that
TL;DR: In the early part of this century Terman developed a series of tests to measure intelligence and concluded that the vocabulary test alone would provide an intelligence quotient within 10 percent of that secured by the entire scale as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: H. Thompson Fillmer University of Florida Gainesville, Florida In our highly verbal society a rich vocabulary is generally equated with a high degree of education. The best communicator is one who uses words that express precisely the meaning that he is intending to convey. The greater one's vocabulary, the more clearly one is able to communicate. For words are the instruments people use to grasp the thoughts of others and to form a large part of their own thinking. The size of a pupil's vocabulary is an index of his intelligence. In the early part of this century Terman developed a series of tests to measure intelligence. He concluded that the vocabulary test alone would provide an intelligence quotient within 10 percent of that secured by the entire scale (1). Wechsler (2) stated that vocabulary is the most reliable measure of intelligence over the full term of life. Vocabulary is also highly related to reading performance. Almost all reading tests have a subtest on vocabulary. This vocabulary subtest is usually heavily weighted in arriving at a total reading score. Chomsky wrote:
TL;DR: Jansen's statement suggests that reading disability is relative and also that our perception of what constitutes "failure" is determined by the current demands of society as discussed by the authors, and that a handicap has two faces-the child's capability in a particular respect and society's perception of that level of capability.
Abstract: Jansen's statement suggests that reading disability is relative and also that our perception of what constitutes "failure" is determined by the current demands of society. The absolute definitions of physical and mental handicaps in medical and special education textbooks can be helpful, particularly in making decisions on treatment and educational policy. However, in considering the special educational needs of handicapped children, it may be useful to bear in mind that a handicap has two faces-the child's capability in a particular respect and society's perception of that level of capability. In H. G. Wells' country of the blind, the only man with sight was considered handicapped and had to be cured of his disability. The juvenile delinquent sent to a special school for maladjusted children because of his predilection for violence and theft might have been praised for his courage and skill in the American Revolution. Wars have
TL;DR: When is the best time to begin school instruction in reading? This is one of the perennial questions that plague education as discussed by the authors, and it was believed that first-graders who had the most difficulty learning to read were not ready when instruction began.
Abstract: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg, Virginia When is the best time to begin school instruction in reading? This is one of the perennial questions that plague education. The question received a great deal of attention during the 1920's and the 1930's. During those decades, according to Durkin (1), many children were failing first grade, usually because of reading. At that time attention was focused on reading readiness. It was believed that first-graders who had the most difficulty learning to read were not ready when instruction began.
TL;DR: The problem of conserving and adapting to new expectations and knowledge is a vexing problem that schools face: to conserve and preserve, on the one hand, and to be responsive to new expectation and knowledge on the other.
Abstract: say, 'This is new and therefore better,' and others who say, 'This is old and therefore good.' " These words by William Ralph Inge tersely sum up a vexing problem that schools face: to conserve and preserve, on the one hand, and to be responsive to new expectations and knowledge, on the other. The problem is vastly complicated by widely differing ideas about what should be preserved and what should be changed. And the problem is even more complicated by differences on how best to conserve, change, or bring about productive tension between the old and the new.
TL;DR: The issue of the value of the paraprofessional in the education setting is not new, the dispute is lively as discussed by the authors, and the literature indicates that more educators favor than openly oppose the use of teacher aides.
Abstract: The dispute over the value of the paraprofessional in the education setting is not new. Though not new, the dispute is lively. Many of the arguments against paraprofessionals have centered on legal issues such as liability and ambiguous laws on the use of teacher aides for instructional purposes (1-3). Other arguments have centered on finances. There have been debates over value received for money spent. Some educators argue that funds spent for teacher aides might better be invested in packaged programs, visual aids, or additional teachers. Paraprofessionals have even been perceived as lay infiltrators into the teaching profession (4). The literature indicates, however, that more educators favor than openly oppose the use of teacher aides. The Economic Act of 1964 and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 greatly increased funding for a professional force. According to the national report on the 1965-66 compensatory education programs under Title 1, teacher aides and other subprofessionals were employed in programs to help meet eleven of the twelve major objectives addressed by Title 1 (5). The descriptive report on Project Head Start for 1969-70 indicated that \"centers operating in full-year and summer Head Start programs most frequently reported the use of teachers and teacher aides on a regular basis as staff. . .\" (6: 116). In 1967 Gaylord Nelson, senator from Wisconsin, introduced the \"Teacher Aid Program Support Act.\" Though not reported out of committee, the bill received substantial support from the teaching profession (7: 1886-87). The National Education Association helped draft the proposed legislation (8). The issue, however, is not simply a \"go no-go\" question on the use of paraprofessionals. There is extensive dialogue on the role and the duties of teacher aides.
TL;DR: The platoon school plan, originated in Gary, Indiana by Superintendent of Schools William A. Wirt, has been recognized as one of the important innovations in progressive education as mentioned in this paper. But progressivism in education meant different things to different people.
Abstract: Raymond A. Mohl Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, Florida The platoon school plan, originated in Gary, Indiana by Superintendent of Schools William A. Wirt, has been recognized as one of the important innovations in progressive education. But progressivism in education meant different things to different people. For some, progressive education represented the attainment of democratic values in the schools; but for others it meant the achievement of administrative and bureaucratic effi-