Showing papers in "Information Technology and Disabilities in 1998"

Computer-Based Concept Mapping: Promoting Meaningful Learning in Science for Students with Disabilities

Abstract: A concept map is a graphical representation of concepts and their interrelationships. In the words of Novak and Gowin (1984), a concept map is a "schematic device for representing a set of concept meanings embedded in a framework of propositions." Concept maps are comprised of nodes (concepts) and links (lines), arranged hierarchically or in some other order to reflect the information domain being represented. A concept map can be an effective tool for organizing new information and integrating it with existing knowledge. The act of constructing concept maps helps learners to recognize new relationships among concepts and refine their understanding of existing relationships (Anderson-Inman & Zeitz, 1993). Because concept maps are externalized representations of the learner's knowledge they can also be effective tools for revealing misconceptions. The process of building a concept map is comprised of four major activities: (a) identifying the main topic or key concept of the map by enclosing it in a graphic element (usually called a node or symbol); (b) entering subordinate concepts in similar nodes that radiate from the key concept; (c) identifying the relationship between each subordinate concept and the key concept by creating and labeling a link (line) between the two; and (d) repeating this process as information is added to the map and more conceptual relationships between and among concepts are portrayed. Relationships included on a concept map are usually of two kinds: propositions (or sentence-like statements about the relationship of one concept to another) and examples (a specific type of relationship in which one of the linked concepts is an example of the other). Because learning is often best achieved when details are organized under broader, more general categories, concept maps are usually hierarchical in form, with the most general concept (the main topic or key concept) at the top. Figure 1 shows a simple concept map on whales that has two propositions and seven examples. The proposition "whales are not fish" consists of two concepts, "whales" and "fish," linked by a valid statement of the relationship between them. Specific examples of fish are linked to the concept "fish" with the preposition "like." For example: "fish like sharks," "fish like sting rays," and "fish like other fish." It is possible, however unlikely, that the linking word "like" was intended to be a verb, in which case the three "fish" examples would become propositions requiring further clarification concerning the fondness that fish might have for sharks, sting rays and other fish. Concept maps consistently provide excellent opportunities for teachers to discover how and what students are thinking, and to help students clarify their thinking and communication skills. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] CONCEPT MAPPING IN SCIENCE EDUCATION In science education, concept mapping has been widely recommended and used in a variety of ways. It has been used to help teachers and students build an organized knowledge base in a given discipline (Pankratius, 1990) or on a given topic (Kopec, Wood & Brody, 1990). It has been used to observe change in students' understanding of concepts over time (Caswell & Wendell, 1992; Novak & Musunda, 1991), to assess what the learner knows (Wandersee, 1987), and to reveal unique thought processes (Cohen, 1987). It has been used in the development of science curriculum (Starr & Krajcik, 1990) and the evaluation of instructional activities for promoting conceptual understanding (Kinnear, Gleeson & Comerford, 1985). It has been used to promote positive self- concepts, positive attitudes toward science (Novak & Gowin, 1984) and increased responsibility for learning (Gurley, 1982). Concept mapping has also been used to enhance the reading comprehension of elementary students (Prater & Terry, 1988) and as a study tool for synthesizing information from multiple sources (Anderson-Inman & Zeitz, 1993). …

Triangle: A Tri-Modal Access Program for Reading, Writing, and Doing Math

Abstract: 1. Introduction TRIANGLE is a DOS and Windows 95 computer program intended for print-impaired students and professionals in math, science, and engineering. It includes: * a math/science word processor * a graphing calculator * a viewer for y versus x plots * a table viewer * the Touch-and-Tell Program for audio and/or braille-assisted reading of tactile figures on an external digitizing pad. The keyboard or any assistive device/software that emulates a keyboard may be used for input. TRIANGLE output may be viewed visually, audibly, and/or by braille. DOS TRIANGLE[1] has an on-line help file describing all editing, calculating, graph-viewing, table-browsing, and figure-reading commands. Several tutorials are also included with the distribution files. DOS TRIANGLE is available to anyone interested in trying it.[2] The expanded symbol set used with the mathematical word processor can be accessed with DOS screen readers only if the appropriate character tables are installed. Support is included for Vocal-Eyes speech screen reader and TSI braille displays. Instructions are included for use with other screen readers, but some expertise and effort on the part of the user is required. TRIANGLE menus and help files are in English, but the program should work with most languages using the roman alphabet. The new Windows 95 TRIANGLE (beta release expected in summer 1998) has all the features of DOS TRIANGLE but is self-voicing through any MS SAPI-compliant speech engine and will also be accessible in braille through any on-line screen display that supports the new MS Braille API. This version of the TRIANGLE program will be demonstrated during the presentation. 2. Windows TRIANGLE mathematical word processor The Windows TRIANGLE word processor is an RTF (rich text format) word processor whose character set includes typographic and foreign characters and the math symbol fonts of math editors bundled with MS Word or Word Perfect. TRIANGLE also utilizes special math and markup symbols to permit all scientific expressions (including fractions, superscripts, subscripts, and tabular arrays) to be written in a linear form. These characters may be entered through a Windows menu, with several of the most common characters having single-stroke short cuts. This is a particularly convenient format for blind users. Expressions may be entered and manipulated with the usual kinds of editing capabilities found in any text processor, such as the Windows clipboard for cutting and pasting. In addition TRIANGLE has a number of special editing and browsing capabilities that make it particularly convenient for reading and writing math and scientific expressions. For example, there are ten specially-addressable clipboards that allow a user to cut and paste several text selections without losing the last one every time a new item is saved. This facility provides significantly increased flexibility that is handy when manipulating math, solving algebraic equations, etc. There are several browsing features designed for ease of reading equations. These include "read enclosed expression" commands that jump to the beginning of the next or previous enclosure and read aloud either the entire expression or the portion of that expression to the next enclosure. Enclosures include standard items such as parentheses, brackets, and braces, as well as markup characters defining numerator and denominator of fractions, complex superscripts, subscripts, or radicals. The user has a number of audio templates for representing math symbols and can custom- design them to personal preferences. Braille access poses a difficult problem, since there is no "accepted" braille representation for anything except letters. We have adopted the GS braille representation used in DOS TRIANGLE[2]. Although DOS TRIANGLE is restricted to 8-dot GS, Windows TRIANGLE can use either 8-dot or 6-dot GS codes. …

Curriculum Development in Teaching Science to Students with Disabilities

Abstract: If we are to improve instruction for students with disabilities, and probably for all students, science teachers must be willing to accommodate instruction and adjust the learning environment. Many students receive sub-standard science instruction because teachers and teacher educators are unaware of services and opportunities for students with disabilities in science. All students should be active participants in all facets of the educational program. All students should have the opportunity to achieve success in the learning process. Teachers must become accustomed to teaching fewer concepts with richer insights, to facilitate greater student understanding, and to present opportunities for students to apply what they learned to real-life situations. Instructors of science methods must model appropriate strategies in their classes and relate the student learning to the educational context in which their students will be teaching. If we are to bring about change in current practice classroom teachers must be able to effectively teach science in inclusive classrooms. Without appropriate modeling by science methods professors, with accompanying experiences in classrooms where students with disabilities are fully integrated, any substantive change is unlikely. The Curriculum Development in Teaching Science to Students with Disabilities Project provides training to teachers and teacher educators to help them improve their ability to teach science to students with disabilities. The project has enlisted support from several professional organizations, including: National Science Teachers Association (NSTA), American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), Association for the Education of Teachers in Science (AETS), Science Education for Students with Disabilities (SESD), and National Middle School Association (NMSA). The project also extends opportunities to disseminate information from professional organizations and groups, such as experimental projects who have received funding from NSF (i.e. DO-IT, EASI) and agencies committed to specific disabilities. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES The primary goal of the project is to prepare a training module for teachers and teacher educators, which improves their knowledge about teaching science to students with disabilities. Project participants receive information on teacher education, methods, materials/programs, organizations, media resources, evaluation/assessment alternatives, web sites, scientists and engineers with disabilities, management strategies, and service agencies that assist with support for students with disabilities. Disability areas addressed in the workshops include: Motor/Orthopedic Impairments, Visual Impairments, Hearing Impairments, Learning Disabilities, Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorders, Developmental Delays, Behavior Disorders, Speech Language Disorders, Autism, Deaf/Blind, Acquired Brain Injury, Other Health Impairments, and Multi-Categorical Impairments. Participants receive opportunities to experience effective instructional practice for students with disabilities plus guidance and direction for guiding students with disabilities in science learning. They are exposed to five proven alternative approaches to instructional delivery, these are: 1. Explicit Teaching. Explicit teaching is a desirable strategy for convergent instruction. There are basic facts, principles and concepts that are necessary for good science understanding and sound scientific reasoning. The steps included in this approach are helpful in improving the efficiency of instruction when the focus is on dissemination. 2. Mastery Teaching. The seven steps included in mastery teaching are demonstrated using an approach presented in many staff training and administrative training workshops. The strategy is particularly effective in providing learning alternatives for students through skill enhancement activities and small group instruction. …

EASI Street to Science and Math for K-12 Students

Abstract: Providing children with disabilities a solid foundation in basic skills is the single-most important aspect of ensuring that they can enter and succeed in college and the work place. This is especially true in the math and science fields, as students must fully understand the fundamentals before they can move on to advanced study or work. Children who are not properly prepared, children who do not build strong foundations, children who are moved along when they have not mastered the basics, are almost certainly doomed to failure. There are several basic issues facing students with disabilities. First, there is an attitude among teachers, administrators, and sometimes even parents, that students with disabilities can't "do" math or science. Second, students with disabilities are often waived out of math and science course work in K-12, which means that they don't develop the basic foundational skills in these fields. This also makes it impossible for many students with disabilities to meet national standards in science and math. Third, students with disabilities are not getting adequate training on adaptive computing technology. Fourth students with disabilities who are studying science and math face problems finding math and science texts that are accessible. Fifth, students with disabilities often require extra help in making the transition from one level of education to the other and from the educational setting to the workplace. Sixth, students with disabilities and their parents must learn to advocate for the appropriate technology and other accommodations necessary for them to succeed in education and the workplace. NEGATIVE ATTITUDES AND AWARENESS ISSUES The negative attitudes that K-12 students with disabilities face parallel those that adults with disabilities face. A 1989 study by the National Science Foundation (Changing America, 1989) reported that the single most significant barrier faced by individuals with disabilities is the negative attitudes on the part of faculty and employers. This is particularly harmful because not only does it deny or limit some students' entrance into the fields of science, engineering and math, but it almost ensures that those individuals will never be able to enter science, engineering, mathematics or technology-related careers when they enter the workforce. Parents, teachers and service providers can do a great deal to help students face and debunk those negative attitudes. Often, all it takes to get teachers, administrators and parents to believe that students with disabilities can do math and science is to show them the tools and accommodations available. LOWERED EXPECTATIONS AND WAIVED REQUIREMENTS The perception that students with disabilities are not capable of doing work in science and math is often reinforced by teachers and parents. Too often students with disabilities are not held responsible for the work that is being done by their peers, and teachers from preschool on will often have lower expectations for students with disabilities. Many teachers in the early grades are so pleased that a student with a disability can do any of the class work. "She is just amazing," is the attitude. And "We don't want to make her work harder than her friends" is the justification for lowering expectations and waiving requirements for students with disabilities. Unfortunately, many parents buy into this argument as well. Some schools have been experimenting with extending the time that elementary and secondary schools provide for students with disabilities to learn basic skills. This can include doing one year's worth of work in two years' time. However, some parents and teachers have raised the issues of the importance of having students move ahead with their social groups and of the perception that retention is only for students who are in real trouble at school. Perhaps it's time to rethink the issue and convince parents, teachers and school administrators that more time to master the basics is a likely option for many students with disabilities. …

Building a Bridge to College Success in K-12.

Abstract: Introduction When researching the relationship between the under representation of persons with disabilities in the fields of mathematics and science and kindergarten through twelfth grade (K-12) education, university professors in mathematics and science were informally asked to describe the impact the K-12 grades had on their professional career paths. While they didn't feel their K-12 years directly contributed to their present field in terms of specific math or science study, they seemed to agree that their K-12 experiences provided them with the general literacy foundation they needed to be successful once they entered postsecondary education and began their specific math or science studies. One mathematician said she felt it was more a matter of K-12 not deterring her from the option of studying math in higher education and that she had actually started college as a history major. She felt that by having a solid foundation in multiple subjects prior to entering college, her options for success in a variety of areas in postsecondary education were increased. A molecular biologist reported she intended on studying art when she graduated from high school and it wasn't until after she was in college that she became seriously interested in the biological sciences. Like the mathematician, she remarked that her ability to succeed in such a technical field as biology in college was due in part to having a strong background in basic literacy. When asked if they thought having a disability would have had an effect on their career path, most felt it would depend on the disability. Generally speaking, it was felt that visual impairment or blindness would have the greatest effect on a person's ability to succeed in math or science because of the lack of availability of instructional tools and materials to effectively communicate information related to these disciplines. They felt access to information posed the greatest obstacle to success in math and science for a person with a disability. The results of this informal survey concur with the author's personal and professional experience. That is, the leading causes of the under representation of individuals with visual impairments in the fields of mathematics and science are: 1) insufficient general preparation for higher education during the K-12 years; and, 2) the lack of effective alternative instructional materials and methods available to a person with a visual impairment in math and science once they reach college. Although a discussion of the lack of effective alternative instructional materials and methods available to a person with a visual impairment in math and science is beyond the scope of this paper, it is important to note there are a number of innovative research projects currently investigating alternative methods for communicating mathematic and scientific information to individuals with visual impairments. Many of these projects are producing encouraging results particularly in the areas of auditory and tactile presentations of mathematic and scientific information. Discussion of the Problem Based on nearly ten years of professional experience working with students with visual impairments in community college and university settings, it is this author's opinion that the majority of students with visual impairments entering postsecondary education lack the literacy and technical skills necessary to successfully manage the challenges of mathematics or science in higher education. Evidenced by their performance, a high percentage of the students served by this author do not exhibit an appropriate level of competency in such areas as reading, writing, and effective utilization of compensatory tools and strategies. For example, many students who have some sight but are functionally blind and print disabled haven't been taught to read or write braille or how to effectively use another nonvisual alternative technique for written communication before entering college. …

Project Smart-Science and Math Access: Resources & Technology.

Abstract: Introduction Project SMART (Science and Math Access: Resources & Technology) has evolved into a multi-year professional development effort that includes components for all adults who regularly have contact with children with disabilities. The common goal of each of the components is the development of both efficacy and capacity to inspire children with disabilities to overcome challenges in the pursuit of excellence in math and science education. While the emphasis area of our program has been in-service teacher education, components have been developed for the following groups that support the efforts of children: * general education teachers; * special education teachers; * parents of children with disabilities; * guidance counselors; The model is intended to promote positive and permanent changes in the academic climate of classrooms and to provide teachers and other service providers with access to appropriate instructional materials, educational technologies, and hands-on experiences to insure full participation in science and mathematics by students with differing abilities. Component for Teachers Our model for professional development is designed to link those factors that impact on student outcomes, which include teacher practices and interventions (i.e., the strategies and adaptations for the teaching of science and mathematics) and teachers' attitudes concerning instruction (Allinder, 1994). Consistent with Allinder's findings and the need for inclusive practices, the program is also designed to involve, from each school, a team that includes a special education teacher and a general education teacher, or a team of teachers working in an inclusionary environment. As we conclude our third year, we have worked with approximately 75 teachers, providing them with summer experiences that incorporate certain guiding principles from the research literature on professional development: * Change in teacher practice is a gradual process. * Regular feedback is essential. * Opportunities for reflection and discussion with peers is essential. * Continued support is needed throughout the academic year. The model is designed to provide teachers with access to appropriate instructional materials, educational technologies and hands-on experiences. This is accomplished by reinforcing formal training activities with practicum experiences where a small number of children are taught by workshop participants. The practicum provides teachers with the opportunity to practice their skills in a sheltered environment as the students benefit from highly desirable teacher to student ratios. The summer training program focuses on collaborative teaching, upgrading knowledge of math and science subject matter, and identifying, integrating and practicing alternative approaches for teaching science and math which address the needs of the special education students. The first week of the summer program concentrates on the preparation of the participants for the upcoming practicum through the introduction of science and math activities that expose the participants to new concepts, interactive training in science and mathematics methodologies, and adaptations for teaching students with disabilities. At this same time the teachers are instructed in the use of computer technology in the classroom. The practicum provides a controlled classroom environment with children from special education programs. Daily lesson plans and assessment of practicum activities are used to assess the effectiveness of the lessons taught. The small group scenario provides maximum benefit to the students and allows the educators the opportunity to work collaboratively to try out the skills and content acquired in the traditional professional development mode and be able to reflect on their efforts to use recently acquired skills. …

Instructional Design That Accommodates Special Learning Needs in Science

Abstract: For the past dozen years, the National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators (NCITE) has been identifying features of instructional design that accommodate the needs of students who are academically behind in school. These students may be behind for various reasons. They may be unable to learn as quickly as others due to learning or behavioral disabilities or they may have started school with a different background (for example, children from impoverished backgrounds or children with limited English), or they may have a disability that has slowed their learning processes. The central purpose of the six instructional design features identified by NCITE is to facilitate more learning in less time for the diverse learners who may be academically delayed, regardless of the cause for the delay. Below is a brief description of how each of these principles accommodates a special learning need. (For a more complete description of these features see Kameenui & Carnine, 1998.) SIX PRINCIPLES OF ACCOMMODATION I. TEACH BIG IDEAS Diverse learners, including students with a variety of disabilities, are often academically delayed. This delay can exacerbate the behavioral problems that diverse learners have when they become aware that their peers are academically further along than they are. Diverse learners also often have difficulties grasping core concepts and distinguishing insignificant details from important points. Often, diverse learners have a greater difficulty learning than the average student and so they fall behind, only to be faced with learning more material in less time. To teach more in less time to students with greater learning difficulties requires that instruction be organized around "big ideas." Big ideas are concepts and principles that facilitate the most efficient and broadest acquisition of knowledge across a range of examples. By organizing and prioritizing information around fundamental concepts, big ideas maximize student learning because "small" ideas can often be best understood in relationship to larger, "umbrella concepts." Organizing information around big ideas means that (a) less information is learned, but the information has more power, and (b) treatment of information is commensurate with its level of importance (Dixon, Carnine, and Kameenui, 1996). Big ideas in science do four things. First, they represent central scientific ideas and organizing principles. Second, they have rich explanatory and predictive power. Third, they motivate the formulation of significant questions, and fourth, they are applicable to many situations and contexts common to everyday experiences. Convection is a big idea taught in the Earth Science videodisk program. The big idea of convection ties together geology, meteorology, and oceanography. An in-depth understanding of convection allows one to predict changes in the earth. Around the convection cell are various contexts where changes in the earth can be predicted based on an understanding of the principles of convection. Convection explains many of the dynamic phenomena occurring in the solid earth (geology), the atmosphere (meteorology), and the ocean (oceanography). Plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanoes, and the formation of mountains are all influenced by convection in the mantle. Similarly, the ocean currents, thermo-haline circulation, and coastal upwelling are influenced by global and local convection. In turn, the interaction of these phenomena in the earth and the atmosphere results in the rock cycle, weathering, and changes in landforms. The interaction of these phenomena in the ocean and in the atmosphere influence the water cycle, wind--driven ocean circulation, El Nino, and climate in general. Learning a big idea well translates into a deep understanding of much content. II. PRIME BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE Students with learning difficulties may lack prerequisite skills or may not understand instructional vocabulary. …

Transitions for Success: Helping K-12 Students Move through the Public School System

Abstract: Change is Scary. It usually means new people, a new environment, new equipment, new procedures, and new expectations. But change is also a part of progress. And the way to make sure that life changes are more beneficial than painful, is to understand what is expected and required in a new environment and to carefully plan how to fulfill those new expectations and requirements. Students with disabilities can have a particularly hard time making the usual transitions that take place in the educational process. When a student moves from one educational setting to another, it is a time of anxiety. If that student has a disability, the anxiety is multiplied. The new environment may have to be physically adapted. New classmates will have questions, and new teachers will need information on how to best help the disabled student progress and become an interdependent part of the new classroom or school. MAINSTREAMING One of the main issues facing parents of children with disabilities is whether or not to allow their children to be mainstreamed--put into regular school classrooms. Many people see it as an equality issue. Others see it practically some children aren't able to learn what they need to learn in regular classes. Whether or when disabled children are mainstreamed into the general school population is an issue that must be addressed for each child. Some students do just fine entering the general population at a young age. Others benefit by going to special classes for a few years and then moving into mainstream classes. The important thing is to make sure that mainstreaming is right for the individual child, rather than being done as a policy decision. The education of most K-12 students with disabilities is guided by an Individualized Education Plan, also known as an IEP. The team that puts the plan together includes the child's parents, teachers, a school administrator and some times special ed service providers and adaptive computer specialists. This team develops a plan that would provide the best education for a individual student and also makes recommendations on adaptive technology. Whether a student goes through school in special education classes or in regular classes, the transitions from one school to another are often a challenge for the student, parents, teachers, and service providers. ELEMENTARY TO MIDDLE SCHOOL The transition between elementary school and middle school requires special consideration because children with disabilities are moving from generally protected environments in which parents, teachers and school principals have taken responsibility for ensuring that physical and educational accommodations are in place, into a more independent environment in which students become increasingly responsible for making sure that their own special needs are met. In elementary school, students are usually sheltered in one classroom, with one teacher and 25 classmates. Although the teacher and many of the classmates change from year to year, the environment is generally static. New teachers are informed ahead of time that a student with a disability will be in class, and special arrangements are generally put in place before the student arrives for the first time in a new class. In a one-room setting, a teacher has the opportunity to spend more time with a disabled child, to understand the particular child's special needs and to offer assistance and encouragement. Also, in the one-room setting, assistive technology needs--such as a computer and adaptive hardware and software can be set up in a special workstation. Accommodation isn't quite as simple in the faster-paced, mobile middle school environment, which is designed to demand more independence of students. Students move from class to class, and from teacher to teacher. Teachers lose the opportunity to work as closely with their students, and accommodating students who need it becomes a more difficult job. …

"Hitting the Books:" Accessible Textbooks for K-12 Math and Science Education

Abstract: INTRODUCTION It is not uncommon to hear a parent or teacher encourage a young student to "hit the books" when the student is struggling with a difficult subject in school. Most of us can remember times in our own childhoods when hopes for some outdoor activity were bashed by mom or dad informing us that our school work demanded more of our attention, or occasions where long evenings were spent at the kitchen table with our heads stuck in books. And of course, the more complicated the subject, the longer it took to get that reading done. For students with disabilities, however, "hitting the books" often becomes a challenge in itself, which adds to the difficulty of studying complex subjects such as higher mathematics, electronics, or chemistry, to name a few. For K-12 students who lack the mobility to turn the pages, who cannot see the words on the page, or who cannot process the printed information due to learning disabilities, the ability to excel in math and science subjects is often artificially restricted by the lack of accessible textbooks. Although one may argue that a considerable amount of K-12 education comes through direct personal instruction in a classroom setting, no one can disagree that much of a student's educational experience depends on the use of textbooks, both in the classroom and at home. Throughout a person's schooling, there are two major avenues of learning that tend to complement and reinforce each other: teachers and books. There are, of course, the anecdotal stories of great thinkers who "never cracked a book" but who had the benefit of some truly outstanding teachers, or those who never attended a formal school but achieved brilliance through years of self-study. But, the reality is that modern education depends upon a student's access to both good teachers and good books. For students with disabilities, a major concern is the availability of truly accessible textbooks. This issue becomes even more important when we talk about accessible science and math texts for K-12 students. READERS Over the years, we have witnessed the development a variety of methods that may be used to supply access to printed materials for students with disabilities. Certainly the earliest and most direct method is simply to have another person read the desired section from the book - after all, that's how all of us get introduced to books in the first years of life. School is no different. But after the first couple of years in school, students are expected to read independently. For students with various types of print disabilities, however, acquiring independence depends upon the utilization of additional accommodations. One possible practice for handling in-school work is the assignment of a staff member or teacher to act as a reader, while home reading may be provided by a family member or a care-giver. This usually works well for young students who cannot utilize printed materials due to their disability, but who have intact hearing. Since young students are using very basic materials, and have only a slight reading load, this strategy is usually sufficient. However, as the reading load and complexity increases with the student's progress through school, this approach begins to lose effectiveness. Additionally, dependence on a reader adversely affects a student's ability to independently discover and utilize books which have not been assigned by teachers, but that are needed to satisfy the natural craving for knowledge. Finally, some care-givers will not have the technical expertise to effectively read the kinds of higher level math and science texts that are used in the upper grades. BRAILLED TEXTS Perhaps the earliest successful innovation to assist blind students in accessing textbooks was the advent of Braille. Brailled materials are a common approach for students who have little or no usable sight, but who have reasonable dexterity. …

CD-ROMS for Math and Science

Abstract: INTRODUCTION: THE PROBLEM A rich array of software to support the teaching of math and science is now available. Unfortunately, most of this software is not usable by students who are blind or visually impaired. As students and teachers increasingly have access to multimedia computers in their classrooms, the chances that a student who is blind or visually impaired will be left out of a math or science lesson because of inaccessible software increases. Software that motivates with audio, allows interactive control of simulations, or provides a working math notebook complete with calculations, could be tools for students with impaired vision--if only the students could use it. Visually impaired students use computers with a screen reader or a screen magnifier. Screen readers are computer programs that enable people to have printed text that appears on the computer monitor read aloud by synthesized speech. Traditionally, screen readers worked best with MS-DOS text-only products. But, since the graphical user interface (GUI) has taken hold, screen reader developers have designed their software to work reasonably well with mainstream Windows or Macintosh-based applications such as word processor, database management and spreadsheet programs. However, most commercially available multimedia software today have photos, videos, and graphical controls that cannot be interpreted by screen readers. In addition, with a large range of software available, it isn't cost-effect ive or feasible for screen reader vendors to customize their products to be compatible with all commercially available software. Screen magnifiers enlarge the print and images that appear on the monitor screen, and in most cases, work well with interactive software. The CD-ROM Access Project, at the CPB/WGBH National Center for Accessible Media, focuses on making multimedia science, math, engineering, and technology software accessible to people who are blind or visually impaired. A goal of this project is to develop and disseminate guidelines that will allow software publishers to create truly accessible products in two ways, first by standardizing methods of making information available to a screen reader and second, by building access directly into a mainstream piece of software. The project began with an analysis of current CD-ROM software, parts of which are presented below. These case studies show the range of problems with current multimedia software and provide some idea of features to look for when evaluating products for your own use. In order to use the capabilities of a range of screen readers and magnifiers, each piece of software was tested with three screen readers (JAWS for Windows 95 version 2.0, Screen Power for Windows 95 version 3.0 revision C, outSPOKEN for Macintosh version 1.7.5) and two screen enlargers (LP Windows version 6.1, and inLARGE version 2.1 for Macintosh). While we tried to use each program as fully as possible, we may not have used all possible features. Our comments should not be understood to compare the access technologies to each other. Each product mentioned was the most current version available when our testing began. We tested both Macintosh and Windows versions and noted any major differences. Multimedia software often changes substantially from version to version and our comments are therefore only applicable to the version listed. New releases may be more or less accessible. We hope that a long-term outcome of this research will be more accessible software, but because products are designed long before they are released it may take some time before improvements are evident. Note that none of the programs reviewed here have special descriptive features for visually impaired users to improve their understanding of visual images. These products do not include video description for their multimedia clips or descriptive text for photographs. PART I: CASE STUDIES 1. …