Showing papers in "Journal of Educational Research in 1971"

The Effects of Type of Examination Anticipated on Test Preparation and Performance.

Abstract: This study investigated the effects of anticipation of either an objectives combined objective and essays or essay test on students’ study methods and actual performance on both objective and essay examinations. In the first of two experiments-conducted under ordinary classroom conditions-introductory education students were told to anticipate one of the three midterm examination formats. In the second experiment-conducted with language arts students-the preparation period was tightly controlled to permit precise, unobtrusive measures of study methods. In both experiments each analysis of study method variables and various performance criteria revealed no reliable differences between the three treatment groups, suggesting that kind of examination expected did not affect amount or type of preparation, or actual performance on either examination type.

The Relationship of Cognitive Style and Method of Instruction to Performance in Ninth Grade Geography

Abstract: Two levels of task presentation (discovery and expository) and two levels of cognitive style (analytic and global) were factorially combined to form a 2 X 2 design. After 11 hours of instruction, the learning performance of 117 ninth grade Ss was measured in terms of (a) knowledge of Japan's geography and (b) higher-learning, or the ability to use geographic materials in new situations. Separate analyses of variance of knowledge scores for males and females revealed no significant main effects or interactions. The analysis of the extreme analytic and global male Ss indicated a significant (p < .05) cognitive style by method interaction in which the global Ss receiving the expository method performed significantly poorer than the analytic males. The analysis of the higher-learning scores for males and females revealed a significant main effect of cognitive style (p < .05), with the analytic Ss performing significantly better than the global Ss. For the extreme analytic-global males the in teraction of cognitive style and methods was reliable (p < .05), with extreme global males who were taught by an expository method performing more poorly than all other groups which did not differ.

Curriculum Development and Evaluation.

Abstract: (1971). Curriculum Development and Evaluation. The Journal of Educational Research: Vol. 64, No. 10, pp. 436-442.

Control of Reinforcement and Academic Achievement.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between children's locus of control scores and school achievement, as measured by reading scores, for low and upper-middle socioeconomic level (SEL) white and black groups. It was found that the low SEL group had significantly higher external scores than the upper-middle SEL group and that within the upper-middle group the blacks had higher external scores than the whites. However, within the low group, there was no relationship between race and external scores. Of the four groups, white low SEL, black low SEL, black upper-middle SEL, and white upper-middle SEL, the locus of control scores related to success in reading in only the latter group. It was found that the higher the external score, the lower the reading score. The findings are discussed in terms of their educational implications.

Assessment of Efforts To Aid Socially Isolated Elementary School Pupils.

Abstract: This study was focused on an assessment of special efforts to aid pupils in the lowest fourth of social status with their classmates. During one semester in four classes the effects of seventeen different kinds of socializing experiences were assessed as compared with social status scores the preceding term and as compared with similar data collected in two control schools. All group differences were statistically insignificant, but a few individuals made marked gains. These largely negative findings are explained on the bases of concepts from sociometrics, social psychology, Gestalt principles, and the psychology of perception. School personnel are warned against assuming that most socially low pupils can be aided by socializing experiences.

Operant Conditioning in the Classroom Setting: A Review of the Research

Abstract: The purposes of this review were (a) to summarize the research following an applied behavioral analysis which has relevance for public school classrooms and (b) to discuss the problems and important considerations involved in an applied behavioral analysis of classroom behavior. Studies in this area are grouped into the following categories according to the nature of the reinforcement employed and assessed: (a) teacher attention, (b) peer attention, (c) token reinforcement, and (d) vicarious reinforcement. The problems of obtaining teacher cooperation, valid and reliable measurements, and confirmation of stimulus control through design of the experiment were discussed. Finally, the implications of these studies for classroom behavior control, as well as for future research, were explored

Field Dependence-Field Independence in 5- to 10-Year-Old Children

Abstract: A final random sample of 160 Provo, Utah, elementary school children ages 5 to 10, was included in a balanced cell format to investigate the effects of school as reflective of socioeconomic level, age, sex, and intelligence on performance on the Children’s Embedded Figures Test (CEFT), a measure of Witkin’s field-dependence-independence hypothesis appropriate for use with young children. Results implied that (1) there may be differences on criterion performance according to relative social class; (2) age is the single best predictor of criterion performance, as significant differences proceeding from relative field-dependence to greater field-independence with increasing age were found; (3) there is a similar developmental pattern to increase in verbal intellectual power and increase in relative field-independence when all ages are considered together; (4) there were no significant similarities between field-dependence-independence and verbal intelligence within three of four specific ages investi...

Characteristics of Students Who Make Accurate and Inaccurate Self-Predictions of College Achievement

Abstract: College students (N = 198) predicted their grades at the beginning of four grading periods of a school year. Average discrepancy scores (ADS) between the self-predicted grade point average (SP GPA) and achieved grade point average (Ach GPA) were obtained for all students. Students in the top quartile (inaccurate predictors) were compared with students in the bottom quartile (accurate predictors) on five dimensions. No differences were found in sex or age. Accurate predictors tended to differ from inaccurate predictors in academic classification (p<.01), academic achievement (p<.001), and self-concept (p<.001). THE PREDICTION of academic performance is a leitmotif of the educational world, and no where more so than in the college and university. Admissions officers, registrars, personnel deans, counselors, teachers, and others involved with students utilize various instruments ranging from statistical projections to intuitive feelings in an effort to peer into the academic future of this or that student, or of a group of students. These ef forts have met with varying degrees of success (5,11,14). Students also predict their own achievement, usually on an informal basis, and often without awareness of the thought processes involved. When self-prediction is formalized and the stu dent is made aware of what he is doing, the re sultant data are of the sort utilized in the level of aspiration studies which were so prominent a few decades ago (3, 4, 6, 7, 12, 13). These and more recent investigations (1, 2, 8, 9, 10) suggest that some systematic differences may be found between students who make accurate and those who make inaccurate predictions of their own achievement.

The Effectiveness of Tutoring Underachievers in Reading and Writing.

Abstract: Systematic data to confirm the effectiveness of tutoring are rarely gathered. In this study, the effectiveness of tutoring underachievers in reading and writing at the fourth, seventh, and tenth grade levels was checked. Subjects were defined as underachievers if their obtained STEP reading and writing scores were lower than the scores predicted on the basis of their CTMM scores. Subjects with the largest discrepancies were randomly assigned to one of two tutorial arrangements or to a control group. Tutoring produced significantly greater end-of-year gains on the STEP tests at all three grade levels and these were sustained 2 years later for Ss tutored as seventh and tenth graders. At all three grade levels, there were significantly greater frequencies of tutored, as compared to control Ss, who reached their predicted potential or better. This difference was present 2 years later.

Focused and Unfocused Feedback and Self-Perception

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of “focused” versus “unfocused

The Effect of Grade Contracts on Student Performance.

Abstract: Each of four classes of Educational Psychology 2430(Child Study) was randomly divided into two groups: experimental (N=55) and control (N=55). The experimental group’s course performance was evaluated by a grade contract approach while the control group was evaluated by a traditional method. Group differences favored the experimental group; however, such differences were not statistically significant.

An Application of Social Learning Theory in Affecting Change in a Group of Student Teachers Using Video Modeling Techniques.

Abstract: This research was conducted to determine the extent to which imitation can be employed in the education of student teachers. A pretest-posttest control group design was employed. A 20-minute, video taped, model teacher demonstration with a high I/D ratio was shown to twenty Ss. Another twenty Ss were exposed to a neutral movie. Specific lessons by the Ss were then audio taped and analyzed using the I/D and revised I/D ratios. Analysis of covariance revealed significant differences existing between treatment groups where posttesting was done within 48 hours after exposure. Results support earlier findings on imitation and suggest both theoretical and technical application for teacher education.

The Schools’ Contribution to the Cumulating Deficit

Abstract: Do school programs contribute to cumulating deficits in academic achievement found between middle-class children and lower-class children through differential emphases given to the basic skills? Fourteen schools, seven serving mostly middle-class children and seven serving mainly lower-class children were identified in a suburban school district near Washington, D. C. An item analysis was performed on the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills battery administered routinely to the fifth grade students in these schools. Items with a positive phi coefficient of .35 or higher were identified as discriminating between the two types of schools. Teachers in the schools were administered a questionnaire asking them to estimate the emphasis their program placed on teaching the basic skills. It was found that middle-class schools placed greater emphasis on the basic skills than did lower-class schools. Also, the middle-class schools placed greater emphasis on the skills that discriminates! between the schools than did...

Study Habit Modification and Its Effect on Academic Performance: A Behavioral Approach

Abstract: The purpose of this research was to determine the effects of a treatment procedure which combined psychological conditioning with a well-known study technique (RSQ3R) upon the academic performance ...

Student Reaction to the Grade Contract

Abstract: ABSTRxiCT The study describes the grade contract and assesses opinions of students who experienced the technique. Data were secured from seniors in an educational measurement and evaluation course. Analysis of student responses to a 14-item attitude scale showed a generally favorable opinion toward the grade contract system. A further compari son of a grade contract group with a control group showed that the former viewed the grade contract method as a fairer system of assigning grades than the conventional technique (p < .01). No statistically significant differences were found between the two groups on the validity of the course examination, the understanding of the objectives of the course, or the quality of the standards for the course. OVER THE last 70 years, criticisms of grades i have taken many different forms. Grades have been shown to be unreliable for individual teach ers marking the same examinations and unrelated in meaning, within and across departments in the same university as well as across universities. The same criticisms, of course, hold today. It is difficult to find a student or a professor who is satisfied with the conventional grading system. Grades have also been accused of causing anti intellectual motivation and disabling anxiety in students. These factors are currently well docu mented by such strange bedfellows as the Stu dents for a Democratic Society (1) and the Asso ciation for Supervision and Curriculum Develop ment (2). A number of minor adaptions have been made by universities in order to improve the eommuni cability of their evaluative procedures. Some have used evaluations pointing to the range of students' strengths and needs in the mastery of fields of knowledge, powers of criticism, and philosophical maturity. Others are using a pass-fail system, particularly in a student's non-major field. Encour aging though these innovations may be, they still fall short of what conscientious educators deem desirable. One innovation in evaluation that seems to offer real hope for improved communication between students and teachers is the grade con tract. Based on an underlying belief in individual freedom, the necessity of commitment, and per sonal responsibility, the grade contract operates on an individual, one-to-one relationship as other grading procedures do not. |

Student Needs, College Expectations, and “Reality” Perceptions

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to test four hypotheses concerned with relationships between student needs, college expectations, perceptions of college realities, and four groups of student outcome: status quo, changed major, transfer, and withdrawal. Pair-wise Pearson product-moment correlations were obtained between like scales on the Stern Activities Index and two administrations of the College Characteristics Index, prior to college matriculation and at the conclusion of the freshman year. Student needs and expectations of college were related across sixteen of thirty person-situation dimensions but the magnitude and direction of correlations was strongly influenced by sex of respondent. Student expectations of college and subsequent perceptions of college realities were significantly correlated in thirty possible cases. The S’s sex influenced the magnitude of the correlations obtained between college expectation and college realities.

Perception of Teacher–Educators in India about the Ideal Pupil

Abstract: This study was designed to determine what concepts teacher-educators in India have of the ideal student in terms of what characteristics they believe should be encouraged and discouraged and to com...

Faculty Allocation of Effort and Student Course Evaluations.

Abstract: Two types of data were obtained on teaching faculty at the University of Utah, student evaluations of courses, and faculty allocations of time distributed among academic activties. The data were subjected to treatment by analysis of variance procedures. It was found that faculty rank was not related to student evaluations of courses on any of the five course evaluation scales and in general there was little relationship between faculty allocations of time and student evaluations of courses. It was noted, however, that students in courses with large enrollments considered faculty more “prepared” than students in courses with smaller enrollments. There was some evidence that as faculty time allocated to research and writing increased, student ratings of courses decreased.

Relationship of Study Habits and School Attitudes to Achievement in Mathematics and Reading

Abstract: The Survey of Study Habits and Attitudes (SSHA) was used to examine the relationship of sixth grade study habits and school attitudes to achievement in mathematics and reading. Only the attitudes subtest appeared predictive for the group as a whole, using the reading criterion. More precise analysis of this data was accomplished through the use of a moderator variable procedure involving the grouping of pupils by sex. This analysis revealed that in the case of the boys only, the total SSHA score and the attitudes subtest predicted reading achievement. In the case of the girls, neither of these predicted the criterion, although the attitudes subtest did predict a different criterion, mathematics achievement. The implications of these findings are examined with respect to the early diagnosis of school difficulties as well as from the point of view of further development of the SSHA as a research instrument.

Flexibility of Cognitive Style and Its Relationship to Academic Achievement in Fourth and Sixth Grades

Abstract: This research is specifically concerned with whether or not students who tend not to shift cognitive styles are capable of achieving equally as high on verbal and quantitative tasks as students who shift cognitive styles, The Kagan Cognitive Style test was used to identify flexibility and rigidity of cognitive styles. The California Achievement Test was used as our index of verbal and math achievement. Sixty-two fourth grade students and fifty-nine sixth grade students from a north Georgia elementary school constituted the example. Of the thirty-one subjects, twenty-five identified as inflexible and were performing below grade level, only six were performing at grade level, and none were performing above grade level, Data suggest it is inappropriate to consider one cognitive style superior to another. It is evident in the light of the findings of this study to consider academic performance a function of the interaction of cognitive flexibility and cognitive fluency, and the specific task requirements.

Factors Related to Pupil Observation Reports of Teachers and Attitudes Toward Their Teacher

Abstract: Perceptions of 4,368 pupils of the teacher behavior characteristics of 180 secondary teachers as measured by the Pupil Observation Report (POSR) and Scale for Measuring Attitudes Toward Any Teacher (SMAT) were analyzed by pupil characteristics: sex, age, grade, course mark, ability group; and teacher characteristics: age, certificate, sex, field of teaching, and years of teaching experience. Among numerous significant differences were the consistent patterns of higher course marks with more favorable pupil perceptions. High ability groups had more favorable perceptions. Science teachers consistently received the lowest ratings, and teachers with the least and the most experience were perceived more favorably except for Factors II and III. Teachers above the age of 35 received lower ratings than those below 35. Among significant interactions were pupil sex and pupil age, in which, except for 19-year olds, the older groups rated teachers higher. In three of five POSR factors, boys had more favorable opinions of men teachers, whereas girls favored women teachers. Girls favored social studies teachers, whereas boys had more favorable perceptions of science and mathematics teachers. A CONSIDERABLE body of published re search has pertained to student ratings of teachers. The pros and cons of student ratings have been argued over the past 40 years. Critics of the use of student ratings have pointed to the incompetence of the student as a judge of teach ing ability, emphasizing his lack of experience and difficulty of reporting objective judgments. Pro ponents have held that effective learning results from the interaction of student and teacher and that however biased ratings may be, they are valuable as a source of information concerning student reactions to the behavior of teachers. A major portion of the research in this area was conducted by Remmers and Bryan, strong advocates of student evaluation as a means of self-improvement for teachers. Research conclu sions pertinent to the present study may be briefly summarized as follows:

Sociometric Predictors of the Self Concept among Fifth and Sixth Grade Children.

Abstract: Theories of self-concept usually maintain that the individual's self-esteem is reflected in peer ratings The purpose of this study is to isolate factors of self-esteem and of peer ratings and to determine significant relation ships between the derived factors Over two hundred elementary pupils were selected from two metropolitan areas Approximately half were black, disadvantaged pupils; the remainder were white with above average cultural advantages The Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI) and a semantic differential (SD) were administered to all students From a factor analysis of responses to the SEI, four factors of self-esteem and a lie scale emerged Three SD factors were obtained from a factor analysis of the peer ratings One significant canonical correlation (325 p < 01) resulted from the correlation of the three SD factor scores with scores on the five SEI factors "Activity" dominated the relationship between peer feelings and self-concept dimensions MUCH RECENT educational research places emphasis on understanding the relationship be tween scholastic ability and self-concept and other psychological characteristics of the individ ual Studies by Brookover (1), Combs (2), Gor don (4), Rentz and White (5), and Wylie (6) represent some of the attempts to explore these relationships in depth Coopersmith's (3) book length report of research with the Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI) is a comprehensive effort to de fine antecedents of self-esteem He uses the SEI, which has five theoretically derived factors of self concept, together with selected rating scales to provide information about the social behavior of children with low, middle, and high self esteem One of his conclusions is that persons of low self-esteem are likely to be less visible mem bers of the crowd than group leaders and thus more limited in social intercourse with decreased possibilities of supporting relationships He fur ther indicates that although theoretical rationale leads us to assume that popularity is positively associated with self-esteem, conclusions from his study indicate that popularity is associated with behavioral poise rather than the individual's judgments of his own worthiness A major issue in the measurement of the con cept of self lies in theoretical assumptions about the dimensions of the construct being measured It shares the age-old problem of obtaining an objective measure of subjective experiences In this study, it is assumed that the measure of self and the measure of others are primarily in the affective domain rather than in cognition The rationale of this study is to identify the affective structures in the independent factors of the con cept of self derived from a self-report instrument In essence, the study attempts (1) to identify independent factors of self-concept based on sub jective reports of a select sample of fifth and sixth grade children, (2) to describe the factorial dimensions of social relationships based on peer evaluation, and (3) to examine correlates of the dimensions of self with interpersonal constructs within the classroom

A Longitudinal Study of Visual Perceptual Training and Reading Achievement.

Abstract: The impact of the Frostig Program for the Development of Visual Perception on students participating in the study was examined. The study involved ten teachers and twenty kindergarten classes from six rural school districts. Pre- posttests with the Frostig and Metropolitan Readiness Tests were administered to control and exper imental groups. The experimental group received the Frostig program for 15 minutes each day for 4^_ months. All groups were tested on the Stanford Achievement Test the following year. Results indicated that the Frostig program benefited the students' reading ability since achievement test scores of those using the program exceeded scores of those not participating in it. A REVIEW of the literature indicates that for the past decade there has been great concern re garding the relationship of specific visual per ception capabilities to reading achievement. Evi dence has been presented with respect to the effectiveness of the Frostig Developmental Test of Visual Perception (DTVP) (3) in predicting reading readiness in kindergarten (1) as well as to significant relationships between this instrument and reading achievement test scores in later grades (6, 7). However, while some have discov ered that children using the Frostig Visual Per ception Training Program (VPTP) did better on the DTVP than controls (4), it has also been found that the training did not produce actual gains in reading (2, 5, 8). In view of the impor tance of this subject especially for the early childhood years, further research with the VPTP would appear to be warranted.

A Study of Personality Adjustment among Adolescent Children with Working and Nonworking Mothers

Abstract: This study sought to determine if there was a difference in personality adjustment as measured by the Minnesota Counseling Inventory (MCI) among 312 ninth-grade pupils who were categorized according to their mothers’ work history. The principal statistical model used for analyzing the differences in groups was analysis of variance-treatments by levels design. The findings revealed that (1) in all instances, the personality adjustment (as evidenced by MCI scores in eight areas of adjustment) of boys was better when the mother worked full-time than if she had worked part-time or not at all; (2) the personality adjustment of girls did not follow a consistent pattern regarding the employment history of their mothers; (3) on the majority of the MCI scales, girls with nonworking mothers had better adjustment scores than girls with mothers who had worked either full-time or part-time.

The Reading Performance of Disadvantaged Early and Non-Early Readers from Grades 1 through 3

Abstract: This study was undertaken to determine the advantages or disadvantages of early reading ability among black, disadvantaged children entering first grade in the New York public schools. Children who were identified as having some word knowledge ability were compared with non-early readers, both matched and unmatched. Post- test comparisons were made at the end of the first three grades. Results indicate that approximately 5 percent of the population sampled did have some word recognition ability and that they were found to be superior to non-early readers, both matched and unmatched, at each testing interval. The study supports the point of view that early reading is not detrimental to long range achievement.

Factors Which Are Associated with the Principal’s Behavior in Encouraging Teacher Participation in School Decision-Making

Abstract: The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationships between several factors associated with the role of the principal in regard to teacher participation in school decision-making, A multivariate analysis of the data collected from a 10 percent random sample of high school principals in California indicated that the principal’s personal role orientation and his perception of the expectations of his faculty and immediate superior were significantly related to his behavior in encouraging teacher participation in school decision-making.

An Analysis of Two Hypotheses Concerning the Relationship Between Creativity and Intelligence.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to test McNemar's hypothesis that “…at the high IQ levels there will be a very wide range of creativity, whereas as we go down to the average IQ and down to the lower levels the scatter for creativity will be less and less.” The sample consisted of 867 American eighth-grade students from twenty-three junior high schools in three states plus 182 Irish secondary school students from suburban Dublin. In the American sample, divergent thinking was measured by four tests adopted from those of Torrance. The Lorge-Thorndike was used as a measure of intelligence. Selected tests from the Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking and the AH 4 General Test of Intelligence were administered to the Irish sample. In both samples the IQ distributions were divided into three equal ranges. A one-way analysis of variance and a correlational analysis were performed. Results offered only slight support for the McNemar hypothesis. The authors suggest three possible explanations of these findin...

The Use in Writing of Textbook Methods of Paragraph Development

Abstract: This study probed these questions: Which paragraph development methods suggested in textbooks are used in contemporary expository writing. Other than those suggested in textbooks, what methods of paragraph development are used in contemporary expository writing? What is the rate of occurrence of each of the employed methods of paragraph development? Composition textbooks published in the 1960’8 were examined to ascertain which known methods were to be sought. Samples of one hundred paragraphs each were taken from three sources. Each paragraph was analyzed to determine its dominant method of development. It was found that paragraphs were most frequently developed by examples, reasons, additional comment, or a variety of these methods.

A Comparative Study of the Personality Structures of Persistent and Prospective Teachers.

Abstract: The extent to which personality differences exist between teachers and teachers-in-training was investigated. Thirty-two teachers (16 males and 16 females) and 32 persons with undergraduate liberal arts training (16 males and 16 females) who were undergoing teacher training at the post-baccalaureate level were administered Cattell’s Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire. An analysis of variance indicated that the four subgroups were significantly different on four of the sixteen personality factors. The results suggest that only slight personality differences exist between teachers with an undergraduate teacher training background and prospective teachers with an undergraduate liberal arts background.

Transfer of Instructional Behavior and Performance Acquired in Simulated Teaching.

Abstract: This study examined whether instructional performance acquired during simulated teaching with peers acting as students would transfer to a setting in which "real" pupils were students. Four ratings and two descriptive measures were obtained for forty-four preservice secondary teachers using lessons taught to peers and to sixth, seventh, and eight grade students. Comparisons of the teachers' rated performance and behaviors in the peer les sons and the "real" pupils lesson indicated that performance improved during a series of simulated lessons using peers as students and that the increased levels of performance were maintained or improved when "real" pupils were used. Results are interpreted as evidence for transferability of instructional behavior across settings. THE PURPOSE of this investigation was to determine whether instructional behavior learned during a series of simulated teaching experiences using peers as students would transfer to a set ting in which "real" pupils were students. Simulated teaching has recently come into more extended use in teacher preparation, both in pre service and in-service programs. Programs which use simulated teaching include the minicourse (3), microteaching (2), and laboratory teaching (5). Although differences exist among these vari eties of simulation, their applications in teacher education are similar. Simulated teaching involves the presentation of a lesson in which a teacher practices some instructional behavior or teaching style in a small group, and subsequently receives feedback about aspects of his behavior or about the effects of his instruction. Prior to teaching, a description of the teaching task is given with modeling procedures commonly used; video and audio tape replays of the lessons are sometimes supplied as part of the feedback and peers and/or secondary and elementary school pupils act as students in the lesson.