Showing papers in "Journal of Sport Management in 1997"
TL;DR: In this paper, a classification of the various facets of athlete satisfaction in intercollegiate athletics is presented, and the extent to which the identified facets of satisfaction are exhaustive, exclusive, and internally homogeneous is discussed.
Abstract: Although several authors have emphasized the need to treat the athlete as the prime beneficiary of intercollegiate athletics, there has been little effort to assess athlete reactions to their experiences. This paper stresses the uniqueness of athletic teams, develops a rationale for measuring athlete satisfaction, and emphasizes that athlete satisfaction can be used as a measure of organizational effectiveness. A classification of the various facets of satisfaction in athletics is presented. A facet is classified by the following criteria: whether it (a) is task- or social-related, (b) is an outcome or a process, and (c) affects the individual or the team. The extent to which the identified facets of satisfaction are exhaustive, exclusive, and internally homogeneous is discussed.
184 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a recent development in the strategic management literature, the resource-based view of the firm, has great utility for furthering our understanding of sport sponsorship, and a theoretical framework is provided to explain the application of the approach to sponsorship.
Abstract: This study demonstrates that a recent development in the strategic management literature, the resource-based view of the firm, has great utility for furthering our understanding of sport sponsorship. The paper provides a theoretical framework to explain the application of the approach to sponsorship. Illustration and greater insight are then provided through the presentation of two case studies. These are used to identify the salient characteristics of agreements made by two international companies, each of which has been extensively involved in sport sponsorship but with varying degrees of success. The resource-based approach is used to demonstrate that the disparate returns of the companies' sponsorship investments could have been anticipated. As such, as well as providing a conceptual extension to the sponsorship literature, the paper also offers a route for more empirical analyses of potential sponsorship opportunities.
164 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a principal axis factor analysis, using an oblique rotation, determined that two involvement dimensions with eigenvalues greater than 1.OO and accounting for 63% of the variance existed.
Abstract: The primary purpose of this study was to substantiate the multidimensionality of the involvement construct in a college sport context as measured · by the Consumer Involvement Profile (IP) instrument. A secondary purpose was to examine the relationship between individual spectators' sociodemographic and behavioral characteristics and involvement. A principal axis factor analysis, using an oblique rotation, determined that two involvement dimensions with eigenvalues greater than 1.OO and accounting for 63% of the variance existed. MANOVA and ANOVA procedures revealed a significant relationship (.05 level using the Scheffe criterion) between involvement and five independent variables. The multidimensional nature of the involvement construct was substantiated but did not duplicate earlier work by numerous authors. The relationships documented via the ANOVA procedure also challenged earlier work. Further research using the IP instrument with sports spectators would enhance our understanding of their involveme...
115 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the roles or functions of boards in nonprofit organizations, as found in the management literature, were used to explore the roles associated with a sample of nonprofit amateur sport organizations.
Abstract: Limited empirical data on the roles associated with boards of directors in nonprofit organizations are available, yet understanding the work of boards is vital to ensure the roles desired by organizational members and the roles required by the organization are being fulfilled. The roles or functions of boards in nonprofit organizations, as found in the management literature, were used to explore the roles associated with a sample of nonprofit amateur sport organizations. Data were generated from a survey of executive directors, volunteer presidents, and volunteer board members of sport organizations housed at Ontario's Provincial Sport Centre in Toronto. The survey data yielded a 4-factor subscale providing support for a theoretical perspective in assessing roles of the board in mission, planning, executive director, and community relations areas. Similarities and differences of respondents by gender and position on ratings of importance and performance for the board roles were explored with implications ...
113 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examine the nature and extent of interorganizational linkages between the partners involved in Canada's sport delivery system, and present a number of examples of existing links between governments, nonprofit organizations, and private organizations.
Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to examine the nature and extent of interorganizational linkages between the partners involved in Canada's sport delivery system. Given the changes in the economic context of the 1990s and the ensuing fiscal restraints exercised by both government and the private sector, amateur sport organizations are in a period of high uncertainty. In order to deal with this uncertainty, links between organizations like governments, nonprofit sport organizations, and private sector organizations need to be established, fostered, and maintained. Organizations need to collaborate with each other in order to fulfill their objectives. Linkages between organizations will assist in the sharing of resources and in the coordination of work-related activities. In the paper, a number of examples of existing links between governments, nonprofit organizations, and private organizations are presented. Based on resource dependency theory, strategies such as contracts, joint ventures, and co-optation for ...
111 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a participatory action research project designed to increase the access of women living below the poverty line and their families to local physical activity services was presented, and the case of the Women's Action Project demonstrated how the process can result in a more inclusive local sport system and, at the same time, provide a rich setting for examining organizational dynamics including collaborative decision-making, community pa...
Abstract: In contrast to traditional approaches to research, participatory action research calls for the active involvement of the community—including both the beneficiaries and providers of sport services—in defining research problems, executing interventions, interpreting results, and designing strategies to change existing power structures. The purpose of this paper was to analyze a participatory action research project designed to increase the access of women living below the poverty line and their families to local physical activity services. A framework developed by Green et al. (1995) formed the basis of the analysis. To place the analysis in context, the historical origins and theoretical assumptions underlying participatory action research were addressed. The case of the Women's Action Project demonstrated how the process can result in a more inclusive local sport system and, at the same time, provide a rich setting for examining organizational dynamics including collaborative decision-making, community pa...
86 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the effect of various leader characteristics on the transformational/transactional leader behavior and impact of interuniversity athletic administrators (n = 32) as rated by their coaches was examined as possible antecedents to leader behavior.
Abstract: This study examined the effect of various leader characteristics on the transformational/transactional leader behavior (Bass, 1985) and impact of interuniversity athletic administrators (n = 32), as rated by their coaches (n = 114). Gender, age, education, administrative experience, and athletic/coaching experience were examined as possible antecedents to leader behavior (Chelladurai, 1980,1993). These characteristics reflect life experiences (Avolio & Gibbons, 1988) and common indicators of occupational development of athletic administrators (e.g., Barr, 1995; Quarterman, 1992; Williams & Miller, 1983). Leader behavior was measured by the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (Bass & Avolio, 1991b). Differences in transformational/transactional leader behavior were observed for the leader characteristics of gender and age, where female and younger athletic administrators were found to exhibit transformational leader behavior more often, and transactional leader behavior less often, than their male and old...
72 citations
TL;DR: The Target Population Satisfaction Index (TPSI) as discussed by the authors was introduced as an instrument to measure organizational effectiveness in sport programs in institutions of higher learning and was used to evaluate the performance of sport programs.
Abstract: Organizational effectiveness continues to be a popular topic in management settings, seminars, and research projects. Similar levels of interest prevail in the area of sport management, although most of the attention is expressed in the elite sport areas. This paper provides an overview of the organizational effectiveness literature with specific application to the area of recreationalintramural sport programs in institutions of higher learning. The Target Population Satisfaction Index (TPSI) instrument is introduced as an instrument to measure organizational effectiveness in these programs. The author outlines the steps taken to develop and test the instrument as well as a suggested protocol for administering the instrument. The TPSI instrument was subjected to a number of psychometric assessments and is presented as a valid and reliable measurement tool.
49 citations
TL;DR: Using agency theory, the authors examines how the NFL's former commissioner, Pete Rozelle, and the League Executive Committee used these practices in order to increase League revenues and decrease opportunistic behavior by team owners.
Abstract: Although initially developed as cartels of independently owned and operated clubs joining to produce a sports product for spectator consumption, professional sports leagues have emerged as monopolies wielding significant economic power. By increasing revenue-sharing practices, and thus attempting to align owner interests, leagues have become single-business entities that maximize wealth for the league as a whole. Over the past four decades, the National Football League has implemented such practices to become the most popular team sport in North America. Using agency theory, this paper examines how the NFL's former commissioner, Pete Rozelle, and the League Executive Committee used these practices in order to increase League revenues and decrease opportunistic behavior by team owners. However, certain owners continue to act entrepreneurially, to the detriment of the League as a whole. This behavior is congruent with the tenets of agency theory, which contend that interests will diverge within a principal-...
37 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors describe an action research project designed to evaluate a soccer program that was devised as a child-centered alternative to traditional programs, and two surveys were designed: one for parents and one for children.
Abstract: Critics of youth sport have argued that competitive pressures engendered by adult supervision have robbed sport of its play and socialization values. Others contend that youth sport can be redesigned to enhance the benefits children obtain. This study describes an action research project designed to evaluate a soccer program that was devised as a child-centered alternative to traditional programs. On the basis of deliberations with the parent volunteers who created and implement the program, two surveys were designed: one for parents and one for children. Parents in the alternative program and in two traditional programs completed measures of satisfaction, sport involvement, purchase-decision involvement, and attitude. Children completed measures of satisfaction, enjoyment, and attitude. Analysis revealed that the alternative program is well-liked by parents and children, and that parents choosing the alternative program are psychographically distinct from parents who choose traditional programs. Necessar...
37 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a conceptual model of the sport sponsorship acquisition process based on the basic tenets of organizational purchasing behavior, contemporary literature on sport sponsorship, and the results of a qualitative study is presented.
Abstract: The general acceptance of sport sponsorship by corporate and sporting worlds alike has led to a situation whereby corporations receive from hundreds to thousands of unsolicited proposals annually. Despite this, there is a general lack of systematic research into sport sponsorship with little information in existence as to how corporations decide between alternative properties. In an attempt to address this situation, this paper develops a conceptual model of the sport sponsorship acquisition process based on the basic tenets of organizational purchasing behavior, contemporary literature on sport sponsorship, and the results of a qualitative study. It is anticipated that the Sport Sponsorship Acquisition Model will form the basis for further scholarly research to ascertain the precise nature of the acquisition process.
TL;DR: The authors argue that the primary goal of NASSM and JSM should be to support and fortify the scholarship produced by the sport management professoriate, with the concomitant goal of having an impact on the way sport is managed.
Abstract: In the September, 1995 issue of the Journal of Sport Management, W. James Weese suggested that NASSM should develop a more practical focus and philosophy in order to better serve sport management practitioners. He made several recommendations regarding future directions for NASSM and the Journal of Sport Management (JSM) designed to pursue that goal. We respectfully challenge Weese's position, arguing that the primary goal of NASSM and JSM should be to support and fortify the scholarship produced by the sport management professoriate, with the concomitant goal of having an impact on the way sport is managed. We suggest that NASSM and JSM have naturally evolved to protect and enhance sport management education. In the process, they have become eminent providers of continuing education and currently useful research to the sport management professoriate, student-scholars, and practitioners who seek a symbiotic relationship with the academy.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explore the redesign of sport systems and the tasks of redressing inequities in sport service delivery, and suggest the value of incorporating both qualitative and quantitative methods in action research, and challenge traditional distinctions between applied and basic research.
Abstract: Although sport has evidenced phenomenal growth throughout this century, the directions of sport's growth have been widely criticized. The growth and resulting criticisms challenge sport managers and sport management researchers to reexamine their methods and their assumptions. Articles in this special issue explore the redesign of sport systems and the tasks of redressing inequities in sport service delivery. They raise significant issues about the role of knowledge in the empowerment of managers and clients. The articles suggest the value of incorporating both qualitative and quantitative methods in action research, and challenge traditional distinctions between “applied” and “basic” research. They demonstrate the merit of case-based research, and illustrate the utility of collaborations between researchers and the persons they study. The study of social change in sport promises to provide a useful context for the elaboration of theories and models about the management of sport.
TL;DR: In this article, the concept of archetypes was used to create two templates for professional sport franchises: the sport-centered archetype and the business-centered archetypes, and data were collected from interviews with representatives of five AAA baseball franchises, documents were retained from the league's public relations firm and the franchises themselves, and information was assembled from newspapers and trade magazines.
Abstract: Sport franchises are challenged to operate within the fast-changing environment of the professional sport industry. The purpose of this paper is to ascertain the extent to which these organizations are changing and to understand why some organizations have embraced the competitive strategies and institutional beliefs of their contemporary environment, while others have remained relatively unchanged. The concept of archetypes was used to create two templates for professional sport franchises: The sport-centered archetype and the business-centered archetype. Data were then collected from interviews with representatives of five AAA baseball franchises, documents were retained from the league's public relations firm and the franchises themselves, and information was assembled from newspapers and trade magazines. The results of the research indicated that one organization was in the sport-centered archetype, three were in the business-centered archetype, and one was between the two archetypes. It was found tha...
TL;DR: The role of sport and sport development in community development is explored in this article, with special emphasis on the conditions in economically depressed communities, and it is argued that in order to address the immediate sporting needs of communities and also to prepare them for future development, the training of community members as lay sports administrators is imperative.
Abstract: The author provides a perspective on South African sport, in terms of the existing perceptions, challenges, and constraints with which its managers are confronted. The unique needs of the disadvantaged communities with regard to sport management are discussed in relation to the Empowerment Model of Friedman (1992), and placed within the critical theoretical framework. The certified course in sports administration, being administered under the auspices of The University of the Western Cape (together with The University of Cape Town, National Sports Council Western Cape, and World Teach/Score), serves as a case study for this paper. It is argued that in order to address the immediate sporting needs of communities, and also to prepare them for future development, the training of community members as lay sports administrators is imperative. The role of sport and sport development in community development is explored, with special emphasis on the conditions in economically depressed communities. The importance...
TL;DR: Wang et al. as mentioned in this paper described recent changes in Chinese sport and explored the consequences of these changes and provided guidance for Western entrepreneurs and business people who wish to take advantage of the rapidly expanding sports market in China.
Abstract: China is a country undergoing dramatic change. The national sports management system developed under Communism more than 40 years ago has changed direction and now effectively promotes the development of a sports industry for commercial benefit. Sport is expected to stand on its own feet and not rely on State support. Chinese sport today has been turned into a money-making proposition. As living standards rise, as leisure increases, as the profit motive is encouraged, and as the economy becomes global, China is becoming a major outlet for commercial sports opportunities of every kind. This paper describes recent changes in Chinese sport and explores the consequences of these changes. Finally, it provides guidance for Western entrepreneurs and business people who wish to take advantage of the rapidly expanding sports market in China.
TL;DR: The authors found significant differences between U.S and non-U.S. based international sport managers with regard to the educational background, language, and cultural training deemed essential for success in the global sports market.
Abstract: This article presents the results of a pilot study that found significant differences between U.S. and non-U.S. based international sport managers with regard to the educational background, language, and cultural training deemed essential for success in the global sports market. Educational and executive training programs in sport management should recognize sport's movement into a global market and consider providing students in their programs with the competency to compete for positions in sport on a global scale. To do so, sport management programs should offer a global perspective, which encompasses education for recognizing and avoiding potential barriers to effectively conducting sport business in societies where differences exist in language, culture, business, economics, and politics.
TL;DR: The authors presents an overview of the positions of philosophers Alasdair Maclntyre, John Ralston Saul, and Charles Taylor and examines management's relationship to sport in light of their critiques.
Abstract: Although today some athletic events are organized by those without any administrative qualifications, much of modern sport management reflects the technocratic global culture from which it springs: formalized, institutionalized, and professionalized. Some recent critical assessments of our dominant philosophical influences have been extremely unkind to the administrative practices that they have spawned. Among the charges leveled is that management, in general, lacks a moral and epistemological base and is self-serving and antidemocratic. Much of this criticism is relevant to the management of modern sport. This paper presents an overview of the positions of philosophers Alasdair Maclntyre, John Ralston Saul, and Charles Taylor and examines management's relationship to sport in light of their critiques. A general philosophical framework is constructed upon which specific questions about specific activities of sport management can be asked and possibly answered. The results have implications for the educat...
TL;DR: This paper found that, due to the timing of games and excess capacity considerations regarding public mass transit, a more functional/usable mass transit system may benefit NFL franchise-operating income but may be nonbeneficial to NBA and MLB franchise incomes.
Abstract: This study finds that, due to the timing of games and excess capacity considerations regarding public mass transit, a more functional/usable mass transit system may benefit NFL franchise-operating income but may be nonbeneficial to NBA and MLB franchise incomes. The empirical results were obtained using ordinary least squares estimates for 1993 and allow for a variety of factors, including ticket prices, population size, win/loss records, and stadium/ arena size.
TL;DR: In this article, it is shown that given a fixed number of games within which to conduct multitiered playoffs, allocation rules may be determined so that the distribution of games to each tier may be set in order to maximize the probability that the team with the highest winning percentage advances through all tiers successfully.
Abstract: Professional baseball has witnessed radical reform over the past few years, partially due to management's increasing concern with a diminished public image. One such reform involves the format of baseball playoffs, which is expected to impact on the level of interest in the game through an extended playoff format and closer pennant races. The new playoff structure includes a wild card entrant and one additional tier of playoff games in each league. The analysis here suggests that this format increases the likelihood that upsets will occur. It is also shown that given a fixed number of games within which to conduct multitiered playoffs, allocation rules may be determined so that the distribution of games to each tier may be set in order to maximize the probability that the team with the highest winning percentage advances through all tiers successfully.