Showing papers in "Mountain Research and Development in 1983"

Deforestation in the food/fuel context. Historical and political perspectives from Nepal.

Abstract: The thesis of this paper is that the primary cause of deforestation in Nepal is the clearing of forests to increase land for agriculture and fodder, and not, as generally assumed, the need for fuelwood. To successfully counteract deforestation and the resulting ecological damage, it is necessary to consider the full range of needs of the rural people: food, fodder, building materials, and fuel. This paper first examines the history of government concerns in Nepal from the eighteenth century to 1950. At that time, the peasants were conditioned into a life of subsistence while deforestation enriched the elites, who ignored scientific farm and forestry management. The second part of the paper focuses on post-1950 government policies designed to conserve forest resources. It documents the influence of the global energy crisis on proposed solutions to Nepal's deforestation problem, especially in the area of international assistance. In 1957, the government attempted to alleviate the deforestation problem by nationalizing the forests. Because this policy ignored the customs and needs of the local rural people, it was not effective in meeting its objective. The 1976 Forest Plan recognizes in principle the need for local participation in forest conservation, but this concept has yet to be successfully implemented. RESUM Le deboisement dans le contexte alimentation/chauffage: perspectives historiques et politiques au Nepal. La these de cette etude est que la cause principale du deboisement au Nepal est le defrichement des forets en vue d'augmenter la superficie disponible pour l'agriculture et l'affouragement, et non pas, comme on pourrait le supposer, pour procurer du bois de chauffage. Pour contrecarrer efficacement le deboisement et la deterioration ecologique resultante, il faut considerer l'ensemble des besoins de la population rurale: alimentation, fourrage, materiaux de construction, et bois de chauffage. Cette etude examine d'abord l'historique de l'intervention du gouvernement au Nepal, du dix-huitieme siecle jusqu'a 1950. Durant cette periode, les paysans etaient voues a un regime d'autoconsommation, alors que le deboisement enrichissait les classes superieures qui ignoraient les methodes scientifiques de gestion des terres arables et des forets. La seconde partie de l'etude conceme les meures s par le gouvernement apres 1950, en vue de conserver le patrimoine forestier. Elle documente l'effet de la crise energetique mondiale sur les solutions proposees au probleme du deboisement au Nepal, en particulier du point de vue de l'aide internationale. En 1957, le gouvernement a essaye d'attaquer le probleme en nationalisant les forets. Du fait que cette politique ignorait les coutumes et les besoins de la population rurale locale, les objectifs vises n'ont pas ete atteints. Le Plan Forestier de 1976 reconnait en principe le besoin d'une participation locale a la conservation forestiere, mais ce concept n'a pas encore ete vraiement bien mis en pratique. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Abholzung im Zusammenhang mit Brennstoff-/Nahrungsmittelgewinnung: Historische und politische Perspektiven in Nepal. Die Veroffentlichung zeigt, dass in Nepal der Hauptgrund fur Rodungen die Vergrosserung der Nutzflaiche fur Landwirtschaft und Futtergewinnung ist, und nicht wie allgemein angenommen wird die Gewinnung von Brennstoff. Um Rodungen und den sich daraus ergebenden okologischen Schaiiden erfolgreich entgegenzuwirken, muss man die Beduiirfnisse der laindlichen Bevolkerung beriicksichtigen: Nahrungsund Futtermittel, Baumaterialien und Brennstoff. Die vorliegende Veroffentlichung untersucht zuerst die geschichtlichen Hintergruiinde in Nepal vom 18. Jahrhundert bis 1950. In dieser Zeitspanne waren die Bauern gewohnt, sich selbst zu versorgen, waiihrend die Oberschicht sich unter Missachtung wissenschaftlicher Gesichtspunkte von Farmund Forstwirtschaft an der Abholzung bereicherte. Der zweite Teil der Veroffentlichung beschaiiftigt sich mit den Regierungsmassnahmen, die nach 1950 zur Erhaltung des Waldbestandes getroffen wurden. Der Einfluss der weltweiten Energiekrise und internationaler Hilfsmassnahmen auf mogliche Losungen der Abholzung in Nepal werden aufgezeigt. ImJahre 1957 versuchte die Regierung das Abholzungsproblem durch Verstaatlichung der Waldgebiete in den Griff zu bekommen. Diese Massnahme war unwirksam, da Braiiuche und Bediirfnisse der ortsansaiissigen Landbevolkerung ignoriert wurden. Die Waldplanung von 1976 erkennt grundsaitzlich die Notwendigkeit lokaler Mitwirkung bei der Erhaltung des Waldbestandes an, muss jedoch dieses Konzept noch erfolgreich durchsetzen. This content downloaded from 157.55.39.162 on Thu, 11 Aug 2016 04:44:57 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 228 / MOUNTAIN RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Soil erosion and soil formation in agricultural ecosystems ethiopia and northern thailand

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Stability and instability of natural and modified upper timberline landscapes in the colorado rocky mountains, usa

Abstract: The forest-alpine tundra ecotone of the Colorado Front Range is defined as the transition belt extending from the upper timberline (upper limit of closely-spaced, symmetrical trees) to the treeline (upper limit of tree species). Its dynamics and natural history are outlined. It is postulated that treeline and the upper part of the ecotone were established several thousand years ago under climatic conditions much more favourable to seedling establishment than those of today. Because the tree forms of the ecotone are able to maintain themselves over long periods by layering, the ecotone is extremely stable despite significant climatic fluctuation. This same characteristic renders it highly vulnerable to human impacts. In the last decade a change has begun from natural long-term stability to progressive short-term instability. The implications of this for wilderness area management are discussed.

External economic dependency and changing human adjustment to marginal environment in the High Himalaya, Nepal.

Abstract: Extensive areas of the High Himalaya are economically backward. Other areas, such as Khumbu Himal, are influenced by tourism and modernization which thereby affects the way of life of the local people. The traditional subsistence agriculture is being replaced by a transitional agricultural system. Tourist trekking is competing with traditional demands for both human and natural resources. The results include significant changes in the traditional agricultural patterns and exploitation of other natural resources, especially forest for firewood and grazing land. Political, social, cultural, and economic factors affect the processes of change. Traditional Buddhist values are exposed to western influence and this leads to internal socio-economic and socio-cultural re-structuring. Relative self-sufficiency in food is giving way to an economic dependence on the external world.

Typology and principles of ecological stability and instability

Abstract: The concepts of ecological stability, instability, and lability are discussed and defined; they should be used only as general concepts. Ecological stability is the continued existence of an ecological system or its capability to restore the original state after a change. It is important to distinguish between natural and anthropogenic stability and instability. According to the presence or absence of disturbance factors (extraordinary factors) and the amplitude of the oscillations of the parameters under consideration the following types of ecological stability can be distinguished: constancy, cyclicity, resistance, and elasticity. For every investigation of stability special criteria and scales of observation must be elaborated. Based on the example of plant communities of the Alps general conclusions are drawn: (1) no ecological system is stable in respect to all possible disturbance factors; (2) different types of stability can occur within the same ecological system; (3) the same disturbance factor can have completely different effects in very similar ecological systems; (4) depending on the criteria and scales of observation the same ecological phenomenon can be considered stable or unstable and evaluated negatively or positively. Thus statements about stability are only of limited value unless it is clearly specified which criteria and scales of observation are used, which disturbance factor is being considered, and which type of stability is occurring. A list of principles contributing to ecological stability is presented; it can be used as a checklist for assessing the risk of instability.

Nepal Mandala: A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley

Abstract: The Description for this book, Nepal Mandala: A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley. (2 Vols.), will be forthcoming.

Predicting landslides related to clearcut logging, northwestern california, u.s.a.

Abstract: Landslides related to clearcut logging are a significant source of erosion in the mountains of northwestern California Forest managers, therefore, frequently must include assessments of landslide risk in their land-use plans A quantitative method is needed to predict such risk over large areas of rugged mountainous terrain From air photographs, data were collected of conditions associated with a sample of logging-related slides and randomly located stable sites Discriminant analyses were used to develop an equation that distinguishes the two types of sites-slide and non-slide-with 81 percent accuracy The equation can be used to provide an assessment of risk for undisturbed terrain Results showed that post-logging failure is most likely to occur near actively scouring streams, just below major convex breaks of slope and within drainage depressions

From a mountain-rural to a plains-urban society: implications of the 1981 Nepalese Census.

Abstract: Preliminary results of the 1981 Nepal census are analyzed as to urbanization and population movement to the Terai. Noting the substantial shift in the pattern of Nepals population distribution occurring between 1971-81 and projecting these rates of change for the future the paper reports a process of transformation wherein Nepal is shifting from a rural hill and mountain society to an urban-subtropical plains (Terai) state. While the flow of migrants to urban areas and the Terai region is well known the increase in rate of change poses a serious challenge for the Nepalese government. Economic development planning must readjust its goals and assumptions to take into account the massive metamorphosis that is occurring in Nepal. Development efforts aimed at rural hill and mountain areas may need to be reevaluated in light of the changing distribution of population. (authors modified)

Agro-Forestry Improvements for Shifting Cultivation Systems: Soil Conservation Research in Northern Thailand

Abstract: Large test plots were constructed for soil erosion and conservation determinations on steep mountain slopes (54 percent grade) at an altitude of 1,240 m above sea level. The 24 by 5-metre test plots were planted with a mix of traditional swidden and introduced agro-forestry systems crops at Mae Muang Luang, Huai Thung Choa research area, 75 km northwest of Chiang Mai. During 1981 comparisons were made of runoff, soil loss, labour input, and crop yield. Soil losses from agro-forestry test plots were 10-22 t'ha' yr'1, or 4-9 times lower than from traditional upland rice (89 t-ha'l yr'l). Labour inputs were 50-150 percent higher, but subsistence crop yields were comparable despite a reduction in cultivated area. This is probably due to fertilizer input from the coffee plantation. Additional years of data are required for verification. RESUME Ameliorations agraires et forestieres pour les systemes d'agriculture itinerante: Recherche de conservation des sols au nord de la Thailande. Sur les fortes pentes de montagnes, a 1240 m d'altitude, de grandes surfaces d'experimentations furent amenagees pour determiner lerosion et la conservation des sols. Les surfaces de 5 m de largeur, 24 m de longueur et inclinees de 54 pourcent a Mae Muang Luang dans le domaine de recherche Huai Thung Choa, qui se trouve a 75 km au nord-ouest de Chiang Mai, furent cultivees avec un melange de riz sec traditionnel et de systemes agro-forestiers importes. Des mesures comparees furent effectuees en 1981 a propos de l'ecoulement en surface, de l'erosion du sol, du travail necessaire a la culture des surfaces ainsi que des rendements. Les pertes de sols des surfaces agro-forestieres, qui representent par annee entre 10 et 22 tonnes par hectare, furent 4 a 9 fois inferieures aux surfaces de riz traditionnelles (89 t-ha''-a'J). Le travail necessite par contre fut de 50 a 150 pourcent superieur a celui du systeme importe. Le rendement de la denree alimentaire essentielle, le riz, resta inchange malgre la reduction des surfaces cultivees, remplacees par des arbres, des cafeiers, des bandes d'herbe et des fosses d'ecoulement. Ce resultat est probablement conditionne par l'utilisation d'engrais pour le cafe. II est necessaire d'effectuer des mesures encore quelques annees afin de confirmer les resultats tres positifs de cette premiere annee agro-forestiere. Des restrictions supplementaires, engendrees par des facteurs socio-economiques, legaux, religieux ou politiques devraient rendre une application generalisee encore plus difficile que la solution decrite des problemes technologiques et ecologiques. Une expansion des experiences sur les terrains des habitants de montagnes est une condition indispensable et un premier pas dans cette direction. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Agro-forstwirtschaftliche Verbesserungen fur Wander-Hackbau-Systeme: Bodenkonservierungs-Forschung in NordThailand. An steilen Gebirgshangen in 1240 m Hohe wurden grosse Experimentierflachen zur Bestimmung von Bodenerosion und Bodenkonservierung errichtet. Die 5 m breiten, 24 m langen und 54 Prozent geneigten Flachen in Mae Muang Luang im Huai Thung Choa Forschungsgebiet 75 km NW Chiang Mai wurden mit einer Mischung von traditionellem Trockenreis-Anbau und eingefuhrten Agro-Forstwirtschafts-Systemen bestellt. Vergleichende Messungen von Oberflachen-Abfluss, Bodenabtrag, Arbeitsaufwand zur Bearbeitung der Flachen, sowie Ernteertrag wurden 1981 durchgefuhrt. Die Bodenverluste von den Agro-Forstwirtschafts-Flachen, mit jiihrlichen Mengen zwischen 10 und 22 Tonnen pro Hektare, waren 4 bis 9 Mal geringer als von der traditionellen Reisanbau-Flache (89 t-ha-' a'l). Der Arbeitsaufwand hingegen war 50 bis 150 Prozent hoher im eingefuhrten System. Der Ernteertrag des Grundnahrungsmittels Reis blieb trotz der Reduktion der angebauten Flache durch Baume, Kaffeebiische, Gras-Streifen und Abfluss-Graben gleich. Dieses Resultat ist wahrscheinlich durch den Diinger-Einsatz fuir den Kaffee bedingt. Weitere Messjahre sind erforderlich, um die fur Agro-Forstwirtschaft sehr erfolgversprechenden Ergebnisse dieses ersten Jahres zu verifizieren. Zusatzliche Beschrankungen durch sozio-okonomische, legale, religiose oder politische Faktoren duiirften eine verbreitete Anwendung noch schwieriger gestalten als die beschriebene Losung der technologisch-okologischen Probleme. Eine Ausdehnung der Experimente auf die Felder der Hugelbewohner ist eine wichtige Voraussetzung und ein erster Schritt in dieser Richtung.

Andean arid land pastoralism and development

Abstract: The Agrarian Reforms of 1953 in Bolivia and 1969 in Peru had negative impacts upon the arid land pastoral sector. The two countries employed different economic approaches in the development strategies for pastoralism, but both involved high technology solutions and ignored the small and medium size producers. The analysis here focuses primarily upon the reasons for the lack of success of the agrarian reform programmes for livestock development. Alternative strategies which might be implemented in the future include a development focus upon animals more efficient than sheep as high cellulose grass metabolizers, the improve- ment of appropriate acclimatized forage species, strategies oriented toward less capital-intensive and more labour-intensive approaches, and programmes particularly oriented to the small producers who make up the majority of the agricultural sector.

The Concept of Stability and Instability of Mountain Ecosystems Derived from the Swiss MAB-6 Studies of the Aletsch Area

Abstract: Research undertaken in one of the four Unesco/MAB-6 test areas in the Swiss Alps provides data for discussion of the concept of stability and instability of mountain ecosystems which are subject to development, mostly in the form of tourism. A dynamic approach has been chosen to ascertain those factors and their controlling mechanisms which are able to slow down, or even prevent, the self-propagating extension of tourism. It is shown that a new dynamic equilibrium on all three levels considered, namely the economic, the social, and the ecological, can be achieved if the existing self-regulatory capacity of the system is deliberately used and so becomes a part of a future development strategy. Observations made in other areas.and findings from associated research projects all suggest that some of these factors may be regarded as indicators that can be used in the assessment of potential instability in relation to the development, deependent on tourism, of a wider range of sites. RdSUMv Le developpement touristique dans es Alpes: une region de montagne entre l'adaptation economique et la stabiliti ecologique: Quelques resultats du projet MAB-6 suisse dans la region dAlktsch (Valais). Les recherches effectuees das la region-test d'Aletsch dans le cadre du programme MAB-6 suisse fournissent le materiel d'illustration et les bases empiriques permettant de considerer, dans la perspective d'un retour a des conditions stables, l'ouverture et le developpement d'une region alpine sous l'impact du tourisme. Dans les communes de la region-test, le passage de la societe agraire a la societe des services s'est produit en un peu moins de trois decennies et engendra des desequilibres evidents dans les domaines economique, social, et ecologique. Il faut donc se demander si un nouvel equilibre dynamique peut etre atteint sous ces conditions. Les etudes mettent en evidence quelques facteurs determinants ainsi que les mecanismes qui les gouvernent. S'ils sont sciemment utilises comme potentiel de regulation dans la strategie de developpement, ces facteurs pourraient contribuer limiter tl'expansion touristique et a stabiliser le developpement. La comparaison avec les resultats d'etudes semblables montre que certains de ces facteurs peuvent etrte utilises comme indicateurs generaux. Ces derniers peuvent contribuer a l'evaluation des risques et des chances d'un developpement dependant du tourisme dans les communes de montagne. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Touristische Entwicklung im inneralpinen Raum zwischen wirtschaflicherAnpassung und ikologischer Sabilitit: Erfahungsbericht aus dem schweizerischen MAB-6-Forschungsprojekt Aletsch (Wallis). Die im Rahmen des schweizerischen MAB-Programmes durchgefuhrten Untersuchungen im Testgebiet 'Aletsch' liefern das Anschauungsmaterial und die empirischen Grundlagen um den durch den Tourismus induzierten Weg der Oeffnung und Entwicklung einer inneralpinen Region unter dem Gesichtspunkt der "Wiedererlangung stabiler Verhiiltnisse" zu diskutieren. Die Sukzession von der Agrarzur Dienstleistungsgesellschaft vollzog sich in den Gemeinden des Untersuchungsgebietes in knapp drei Jahrzehnten und fuihrte zu nachweisbaren Ungleichgewichten im okonomischen, gesellschaftlichen und okologischen Bereich. Die Frage stellt sich, ob unter den gegebenen Rahmenbedingungen ein neues dynamisches Geichgewicht gefunden werden kann. Es werden verschiedene Faktoren und die sie kontrollierenden Mechanismen nachgewiesen, die zu einer Begrenzung der touristischen Expansion und zur Stabilisierung der Entwicklung beitragen konnen, wenn sie bewusst als Regelungspotential in die Entwicklungsstrategie einbezogen werden. Unter Beriicksichtigung der Ergebnisse vergleichbarer Untersuchungen lassen sich einige dieser Faktoren zu Indikatoren verallgemeinern, die zur Abschatzung der Risiken und der Chancen einer Tourismus abhangigen Entwicklung von Berggemeinden beitragen k6nnen.

Stability and instability of mountain ecosystems: introduction to a workshop sponsored by the united nations university

Abstract: Ten percent of the world's population actually lives in mountain regions but more than 40 percent is dependent on the use of mountain resources. Research in mountain ecology for a long time has concentrated on the natural conditions. An under- standing of the overwhelming importance of human activity on changing mountain environments has only emerged during the last ten years. Mountains are defined as those areas that have a local relief sufficient to ensure significant vertical ecological differentiation. A continuous interaction between altitudinal belts because of human activity is taken as an integral part of this definition. There is a great contrast between mountain regions in industrialized and developing countries in terms of the patterns of land use and resource development. These processes of mountain resource use are strongly influenced by the degree and type of economic development of the contiguous lowlands. If mountain ecologists are to make a significant contribution to the solution of mountain resource development problems some well-defined steps will be needed. Research in the individual scientific disciplines must be developed within an overall holistic frame- work. An attempt must be made to detect the significant processes and critical indicators of environmental deterioration. Such an approach should lead to a precise determination of minimum data requirements to ensure more efficient use of scientific manpower. Mountain ecosystems should be considered as dynamic and integrated systems. Models should be used as instruments of commu- nication.

Stability and Instability of Mountain Ecosystems: Definitions for Evaluation of Human Systems

Abstract: This paper defines stability or instability for agricultural systems and by introducing "key processes" the evaluation procedure of stability is discussed. The long-term sustainability of yield (2-3 generations) is the predominant criterion of stability in agricultural systems and this is different from natural ecosystems. Between input and output (yield) a balance has to be maintained. This ranges from the closed cycle of matter in traditional self-sustaining agriculture to the spatially dislocated flow of substances in industrialized agro-systems. RESUME Stabilite et instabilite d'ecosystemes de montagne: Reflexions de principe sur l'valuation de projets. Dans cet expose est proposee une definition pour la stabilite" des ecosystemes agraires et est discute un procede pour l'evaluation de cette stabilite. A la difference des ecosystemes naturels, une production constante (au minimum pendant 2-3 generations) est le critere principal pour les systemes agraires. Dans le cas des systemes de subsistance cette production est liee a un cycle ferme de matieres et, pour les systemes agro-industriels, a des flux ouverts de substances. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Stabilitat und Instabilitat von Gebirgs6kosystemen: Grundsdtzliche Uberlegungen zur Beurteilung von Fallstudien und Projekten. Der Begriff der "Stabilitat" agrarisch genutzter Oekosysteme wird definiert und die Moglichkeit der Stabilitatsbeurteilung mit Hilfe von Schliisselgr6ssen erortert. In Abweichung zu natiirlichen Oekosystemen wird hierbei Nachhaltigkeit der Nutzungsmoglichkeit und der Ertrage uber mindestens 2-3 Generationen als wesentliches Stabilitatskriterium beigezogen. Dabei ist je nach Agrosystem ein Gleichgewicht zwischen Input und Output aufrechtzuerhalten, das variiert zwischen einem raumlich weitgehend geschlossenen Kreislauf in der Subsistenzwirtschaft und einem riumlich weitgehend desintegrierten Substanzfluss (Input/Output) einer industrialisierten Landwirtschaft.

Toward a stable low-input highland agricultural system ley farming in imperata cylindrica grasslands of northern thailand

Abstract: This paper considers popular misconceptions concerning Imperata cylindrica grassland areas and Imperata succession in Northern Thailand. It provides a description of a suggested ley farming system (alternation of pastures and crops). Only 2.5 percent of 2,500 km2 of Northern Thailand is covered by I. cylindrica, nearly all between 1,000-2,000 m and in the western part of the north. There is little evidence that watershed characteristics of I. cylindrica grassland are inferior to those of forested areas; it is readily grazed and is a poor competitor under grazing; it is also relatively easy to establish improved pasture; and grazing quickly results in sown legume dominance to the almost total exclusion of I. cylindrica. I. cylindrica is found mainly in maize/opium areas and is absent from the Karen integral swiddening areas. Establishment of I. cylindrica can be attributed to the removal of shade in the seed and seedling phase; this is a consequence of the intensive weeding practised in the maize/opium swidden systems. Preliminary experiments indicate the benefit of a previously fertilized sown legume pasture to a subsequent upland crop. I. cylindrica grassland should be oversown with Desmodium intortum cv. greenleaf pastures and grazed for 2-3 years, and then dibbled and cultivated with upland crops for two years. Management details are presented. Major constraints to the adoption of ley farming in the Northern Thailand highlands include entrenched traditional tribal attitudes, lack of expertise and interest by official personnel and organiza- tions, and the current high price for opium coupled with the ease of growing and selling it.

The Natural Control of Imperata Cylindrica: Nigeria and Northern Thailand

Abstract: The differences between Imperata cylindrica var. africana and var. major are described. The distribution of the former is outlined and the problems it creates for Nigerian agriculture are discussed. I. cylindrica is considered to have several weaknesses which can be exploited for purposes of control. These are discussed under the headings: Seed characteristics. The seeds are small, with little dormacy and require freedom from competition or disturbance for successful establishment. Susceptibility to shading. The grass grows best in full light and, because of its intolerance of shade, can be suppressed by taller growing grasses, cover crops, legumes, or woody species. Rhizome characteristics. Because of its relatively shallow rhizome system, coupled with susceptibility to the effects of fragmentation or dessication, thorough cultivation can be one effective method of control. Susceptibility to grazing. The grass does not withstand heavy cattle-grazing pressure and, in areas where this is practised, grazing management can be used in association with fire as a means of facilitating the introduction of legumes. Possible means of developing I. cylindrica grassland are discussed with reference to the contrasting situations of Nigeria and the highlands of Northern Thailand. RESUME La lutte naturelle contre l'Imperata cylindrica: Niger et Thailande septentrionale. Les differences entre l'Imperata cylindrica, var. africana et var. major sont decrites dans cette etude. La repartition de la premiere est indiquee, puis les problemes qu'elle pose a l'agriculture nig6rienne sont passes en revue. On considere que l'Imperata cylindrica a plusieurs points faibles que l'on peut exploiter pour la contrecarrer; ils sont precises sous les rubriques suivantes. Caracteristiques des graines : Les graines, petites, et 'a breve dormance, ne peuvent s'etablir qu'en l'absence de concurrence et de perturbations. Susceptibilite'a l'ombre: L'herbe pousse mieux en pleine lumiere et, comme elle ne supporte pas l'ombre, elle peut etre supplantee par de plus hautes herbes, des plantes de couverture, des legumineuses ou des especes ligneuses. Caracteristiques des rhizomes: En raison de son systeme de rhizomes relativement peu profond, en plus de sa susceptibilite aux effets de la fragmentation ou de la dessiccation, la culture peut constituer une methode de lutte efficace. Susceptibilite au broutage: L'herbe ne resiste pas au broutage intensif du betail, et dans de telles regions, la gestion du paturage peut etre utilisee conjointement avec le feu pour faciliter l'introduction de legumineuses. Les moyens possibles de developper les herbages de I. cylindrica sont passes en revue en se referant aux situations opposees du Niger et des r6gions montagneuses de la Thailande septentrionale. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Imperata cylindrica, Grenzen und Moglichkeiten der Nutzbarmachung zu Kontrollzwecken: Nigeria and Nordthailand. Es werden die Unterschiede zwischen Imperata cylindrica var. africana und var. major beschrieben. Das Vorkommen der ersteren wird dargestellt, und die Probleme, die diese furProbleme didie ese fr die Landwirtschaft in Nigeria hervorruft, werden diskutiert. Man nimmt an, dafg I. cylindrica eine Reihe von Schwachen besitzt, die zu Kontrollzwecken ausgenutzt werden konnen. Diese werden unter den folgenden Kapiteluiberschriften behandelt: Sameneigenschaften. Die Samen sind klein und ruhelos und erfordern fur ein erfolgreiches Angehen ein Fehlen von Wettbewerb oder anderen Storfaktoren. Empfdnglichkeit fur Schatten. Das Gras waiichst am besten in vollem Licht und kann wegen seines Nichtgedeihens im Schatten von hoher wachsenden Graiisern, Feldund Hulsenfruichten oder holzernen Spezies unterdruiickt werden. Rhizom-Eigenschaften. Wegen seines relativ niedrigen Rhizomsystems, gepaart mit seiner Anfalligkeit gegenuber Bruchigkeit und Austrocknung, kann eine sorgfaltige Kultivierung eine effektive Kontrollmethode darstellen. Anfalligkeit als Weideland. Das Gras halt keinem starken Druck durch weidendes Vieh stand und in Gebieten, wo diese Art der Nutzbarmachung moglich ist, kann das Weiden gemeinsam mit dem Abbrennen als ein Mittel verwendet werden, um die Einfuhrung von Huilsenfruichten zu erleichtern. Verschiedene Moglichkeiten, I cylindrica-Weideland zu entwickeln, werden diskutiert mit Bezug auf die gegensatzlichen Situationen in Nigeria und in den Hochebenen von Nordthailand.

Imperata cylindrica in the highlands of northern thailand its productivity and status as a weed

Abstract: The grasslands of Northern Thailand are a consequence of shifting cultivation practices of local opium-growing farmers and they are maintained by annual fires. Their productivity is low and they are a fire hazard in the dry season. In swiddening systems, a grassland fallow appears inferior to forest as a means of restoring soil fertility after a cropping phase. Imperata cylindrica cannot be classed as a serious weed in this area; the grass provides some forage for village cattle, is seldom a problem in cultivated fields, and tends to decline or disappear if continually grazed by cattle. Improved pastures based on Desmodium intortum or Stylosanthes guianensis can readily be established and subsequently dominate other species. Data are presented of an experiment in which cattle were put into stands of Eucalyptus and Pinus at a stocking rate of 0.5 beasts ha'1. Damage to the trees was negligible and the cattle controlled Imperata regrowth without affecting either survival rates or the height of the trees.

Geological and petrographic base studies for the mountain hazards mapping project in the kathmandu-kakani area, nepal

Abstract: The geology and petrography of the area between Kakani and Kathmandu, Nepal, was studied to provide a basis for mapping mountain hazards. The study showed a close relationship between rock type and structure, degree of weathering, and susceptibility to landsliding and gully erosion. In addition the soil mineralogy indicates rather immature soils. Five rock units were recognized: a two-mica gneiss series primarily affected by an upper amphibolite facies metamorphism and later over-printed by greenschist facies metamorphism; marble-, quartzite and phyllite-, biotite gneiss-, and schist series that were only affected by the later metamorphism; tourmaline-muscovite granites and associated pegmatites that have been intruded into the other rock units.

Seismic risk and mountain environments: the role of surface conditions in earthquake disaster1

Abstract: The paper examines the extent to which damages in earthquake disasters depend upon features of mountain land environ- ments and human settlement of them. The damage zones of nine out of ten major disasters in recent decades involve mountainous areas. Destructive failure of steep slopes is one recurrent, globally significant indicator of the role of mountainous terrain. Weather and problems of access relating to mountain extremes and terrain are also frequent and serious problems for survival and relief in disaster. It was also found that many of the detailed problems stem from, or have been magnified by, recent ecological and societal changes in the mountains. However, it is the mountain foot and mountain fringe areas where the greatest extent and concentrations of damage occur. Patterns of damage in most earthquake disasters accord with patterns of mountain foot settlement, the complex environment of piedmont ecotones and land uses. Herein lies much of the explanation for geographical concentrations of the disasters in drier lands and coastal settings. Pressures of recent insensitive ecological and social change in these areas, where there are sharp and sudden contrasts in susceptibility to seismic shaking, seem to be a major factor in many of the damages recorded.

Rural Development in Mountainous Areas: Why Progress Is So Difficult

Abstract: Rural development as a goal for enlightened governments in Asia, Africa, and Latin America stands for a very particular policy. It reflects the attempt to achieve harmonious and comprehensive development of rural areas in the Third World, including the promotion of all relevant sectors and fields of activity. Rural development in mountainous areas is determined by several complementary factors which are only partly applicable to those areas in the lowlands which also require sustained development aid. R!SUM! Diveloppement rural dans les regions de montagne: Pourquoi le processus de diveloppement a-t-il des debuts difficiles? Le developpement rural-un but pour des gouvernements eclaires d'Asie, d'Afrique et d'Amerique latine-signale une politique bien particuliere. II reflete la volonte d'atteindre un developpement rural harmonieux et ample dans le Tiers Monde, ce qui inclut la promotion de tous les secteurs importants et de tous les champs d'activites. Le developpement rural en montagne est determine par un certain nombre de facteurs qui ne s'appliquent qu'en partie aux bas pays qui ont eux aussi besoin d'une aide au developpement soutenue. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Landliche Entwicklung in Gebirgsraumen: Warum ist der Entwicklungsprozess so schwer in Gang zu setzen? Die Entwicklung des la'ndlichen Raumes-ein Ziel fur aufgeschlossene Regierungen in Asien, Afrika und Lateinamerika-verlangt eine ganz besondere Politik. Diese versucht, eine harmonische und begreifbare Entwicklung in den landlichen Gebieten der Dritten Welt zu erreichen, einschliesslich der Forderung aller relevanten Sektoren und Aktivitaten. Landliche Entwicklung in Gebirgsriumen ist bestimmt durch zahlreiche weitere Faktoren, die nur zum Teil auf die umgebenden Tieflander ubertragbar sind, die auch eine nachhaltige und langfristige Entwicklung verlangen. INTRODUCTION: NATURAL LIMITATIONS In discussing rural development in mountainous areas, first of all the particular constraints which arise from the geographic situation and the difficulties in building up the necessary infrastructure should be stressed: streets, railways, appropriate communication systems, and the complete social infrastructure, including education, health, and public administration. These elements are usually either non-existent or barely functioning. Furthermore there is no economic incentive which justifies the building-up of such infrastructures. Why is this so? A basic requirement for investment into infrastructure is adequate economic potential. This implies the availability of mineral or other natural resources which could be exploited, or industrial sites which could be subject to further development. Unfortunately, most mountainous areas lack those resources which can be utilized economically. Often the only resource is wood, which is used as fuel or timber, and its exploitation results in the denudation of the forest areas, thereby threatening the environment of the entire region. The already limited agricultural areas become subject to erosion because the water/soil equilibrium is upset. This is an additional threat to the basic living conditions of the presently rapidly growing population in mountainous areas. As the processing of timber usually takes place either abroad or on the plains outside the hill areas, the exploitation of the montane timber resources rarely provides any lasting benefits to the local population. Even a tourist industry -if one disregards all its inconveniences-requires modern supply facilities which can only be created if there are favourable external conditions as compared to other tourist locations. Tourism as a development-promoting instrument, therefore, remains restricted to a few particularly attractive mountainous regions. This content downloaded from 157.55.39.104 on Sun, 19 Jun 2016 06:49:20 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 126 / MOUNTAIN RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ECONOMIC BOTTLENECKS TO MOUNTAIN DEVELOPMENT Economic development is very much linked up with the availability of energy at low cost. In mountainous areas the exploitation of energy resources is worthwhile only in major valleys where demand justifies the capital investment. In order to establish a decentralized supply of electric energy, cheap technical solutions and sufficient capital would be needed but are seldom available. Mountain areas are usually situated far away from ports and, therefore, are less accessible and tend to be cut off from international trade. All products which are not consumed locally are burdened with high transport costscosts which may in the future increase more rapidly than other costs. The long marketing circuits increase the number of middlemen and thus reduce the production incentives. In those areas where, despite all these problems, economic development efforts seem to promise some success, there is often a lack of the necessary investment capital. Such capital has to be attracted to the region from external sources which means further dependency on the lowlands. Entrepreneurs from overcrowded regions ready to invest their money in mountain areas either do this because they have personal connections with people in the area or they perceive opportunities for a high profit. The last factor may only materialize if both natural resources and the local labour can be exploited below their actual value. Furthermore, it cannot be overlooked that some enterprises require skilled labour, particularly if their products are intended for supra-regional markets. Such trained labour is scarce or simply not available in mountainous areas of developing countries. To attract such skilled manpower and to relocate personnel from the lowlands to the mountains is usually fraught with immeasurable difficulties. Given the lack of educational facilities in the mountains, the future of the people remains uncertain.

Laretia Acaulis, a Cushion Plant of the Andes: Ethnobotanical Aspects and the Impact of Its Harvesting

Abstract: Ethnobotanical aspects of the utilization of Laretia acaulis, a cushion plant of the high Andes, as well as ecological consequences of its harvesting were analysed in Santiago, and in La Parva (to the east of Santiago, at 2,700 m a.s.l.), Chile, between 1979 and 1981. The plant is used mostly by the lower income group for the treatment of several diseases. Family tradition and lack of better jobs are determinant factors in the activity of herb-collectors and vendors. Although collectors are selective, in some places the amount harvested surpasses the regeneration capacity of L. acaulis. Considerable loss of soil and fragmentation of cushions are also detectable. Some conservation measures are suggested. RtSUMt Laretia acaulis, une plante-coussinet des Andes: Les aspects ethnobotaniques et I'impact de sa recolte. Les aspects ethnobotaniques de l'utilisation de Laretia acaulis, une plante-coussinet des hautes Andes, ainsi que les consequences de sa recolte ont ete etudiees a Santiago et a La Parva (a 'est de Santiago, a 2700 m d'altitude), Chili, entre 1979 et 1981. Cette plante est principalement utilisee par les couches les plus pauvres de la population pour le traitement de divers maladies. La tradition familiale et 'absence de meilleurs emplois sont les facteurs determinants de la cueillette et de la vente des herbes. Bien que la cueillette soit selective, la quantite recoltee surpasse la capacite de regeneration de L. acaulis. Des pertes de sol considerables et une fragmentation des coussinets ont egalement pu etre constatees. Quelques mesures de conservation sont proposees. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Laretia acaulis, eine Polsterpflanze der Anden: Ethnobotanische Aspekte und der Einfluss des Pfluckens. Von 1979-1981 wurden in Santiago und La Parva (ostlich von Santiago auf 2700 m) Chile, ethnobotanische Aspekte der Nutzung von Laretia acaulis, einer Polsterpflanze der Hochanden und ihrer oekologischen Konsequenzen untersucht. Die Pflanze wird vor allem von der minderbemittelten Bevolkerungsschicht fur die Behandlung verschiedener Krankheiten genutzt. Familientradition und das Fehlen besserer Arbeit sind die ausschlaggebenden Faktoren fur die Tatigkeit des Krautersammlers und -verkaufers. Obschon die Sammler selektiv vorgehen, iibersteight die Erntemenge die Regenerationsfaihigkeit der L. acaulis an einigen Stellen. Betrachtlicher Bodenverlust und die Zerstuckelung der Polsterpflanzen sind nachgewiesen. Einige Konservierungsmassnahmen werden suggeriert.

Changes in stability and carrying capacity of lowland and highland agro-systems in switzerland in the historical past

Abstract: The grain-growing lowland regions of pre-industrial Switzerland are compared with the pastoral regions in the highlands with respect to their vulnerability to meteorological stress and changes in the carrying capacity of the land achieved by the introduction of new technologies between the sixteenth and the nineteenth century. The pastoral agriculture was basically unstable (no balance between winter and summer feeding capacity) and also highly vul- nerable to climatic shocks. Apart from the potato, innovations could not be introduced during the nineteenth century. The lowland system on the other hand has been far better buffered from meteorological stress. In addition, agricultural output was raised substantially after the end of the eighteenth century due to the introduction of clover, the adoption of indoor cattle feeding in summer, and incorporation of the potato.

Imperata research and management in indonesia

Abstract: Alang-alang" (Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.) is a troublesome perennial grass, especially in perennial crops. It may cause serious losses in crop production because it is so strongly competitive and also a fire hazard. Its control, therefore, must be conducted as part of a long-term programme to ensure the success of the whole production system. This is necessitated by its strong perennial characteristics. In Indonesia alang-alang occupies a vast area where improper shifting cultivation is a common agricultural practice and where forest logging is not properly followed by forest rehabilitation. With the present rate of population growth (2.5 percent) the population will almost double in less than 25 years and will reach 225 million in A.D. 2000. This requires more land for settlement, and for food and forest production. Efforts are being made, therefore, to rehabilitate alang-alang dominated areas, as the first priority in land reclamation for transmigration, for expansion of agricultural land, and for reafforestation. Rehabilitation should follow an integrated management system in which pure stands of alang-alang, uncontrolled alang-alang grazing areas, and areas with improper shifting cultivation practices are converted into areas of permanent agriculture, or converted into forest through artificial, natural, or semi-natural (Versteegh) systems. In all efforts, possible utilization of the grass for various purposes should be kept in mind, for instance, for roofing materials, for making cartons, for medicinal purposes, animal fodder, and juice extraction. Only if these efforts are properly programmed, well coordinated, implemented consistently, and evaluated at appropriate times will the alang-alang areas be converted into a useful environment.

Land resources and agricultural utilization in xizang autonomous region china

Abstract: The Xizang Autonomous Region covers an area of about 1,200,000 km2, forming the major part of the Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau, and averaging 4,000 m in elevation. Historically, animal husbandry has been the predominant economic occupation. Since the 1950s, however, agriculture has been extensively developed. Concurrently land-use problems have arisen. The productivity of most of the cultivated land is unstable and susceptible to natural hazards. Necessary responses to the prevailing agricultural instability are proposed: (1) expansion of feed crop and pasture grass production, especially leguminous plants, to occupy 20-30 percent of the total farmland; (2) the planting of native, fast-growing trees around fields and residential areas; and (3) increasing yield per unit area. Overall, the physico-climatic constraints of Xizang must be taken into account. Agricultural production should be restricted to below 4,300 m and to slopes of less than 15 degrees, with a minimum soil thickness of 40 cm and gravel content of less than 20 percent. Adequate water supply must be assured. Finally, increased capital investment is needed. The survey of Xizang's agricultural instability and proposals for improvement are based upon the extensive results of the Com- prehensive Expedition to the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, 1973-1979, organized by Academia Sinica.