Showing papers in "Professional school counseling in 1999"

Development of a professional school counselor identity: A grounded theory.

Abstract: Professional identity formation and development have been studied in numerous professions including teaching (Kuzmic,1994), psychoanalysis (Rosenbloom, 1992), and psychology (Watts, 1987). What appears to be salient across these studies is a process of continual interplay between structural and attitudinal changes that result in a self-conceptualization as a type of professional. This self-conceptualization, which has been termed one's professional identity, serves as a frame of reference from which one carries out a professional role, makes significant professional decisions, and develops as a professional. The literature on professional counselor development has identified similar processes involved in identity formation and development of counselors (Bruss & Kopala, 1993; Hogan, 1964; Loganbill, Hardy, & Delworth,1982; Reising & Daniels,1983; Skovholt & Ronnestad, 1992). The focus of previous research has been on counselors-in-training, with little attention paid to identity development during the working years beyond graduate school. Further, whether counselor identity development is identical for professionals in the various specialities of counseling such as school counseling has not been determined. The counseling literature is saturated with studies and articles that examine the role and functions of school counselors (e.g., Carroll, 1993; Helms & Ibrahim, 1983, 1985; Shertzer & Stone,1963; Stanciak, 1995; Wrenn,1957). In spite of the best efforts of professional associations, accrediting bodies, and training programs to define the profession of school counseling, studies cited in the literature indicate that the actual functions of counselors in the schools do not always reflect what have been identified as the best practices in school counseling (Hutchinson, Barrick, & Groves,1986; Partin, 1993; Peer, 1985; Tennyson, Miller, Skovholt, & Williams, 1989). A major theme that is repeated throughout the literature related to the professionalization of school counseling relates to this dissonance or conflict between school counselor preparation and the realities of the work environment. How decisions are made in this context reflects one's self-conceptualization as a professional-one's professional identity. The development of a professional school counselor identity thus serves as a frame of reference for carrying out work roles, making significant decisions, and developing as a professional. Unfortunately, there is a lack of available information on how this professional identity develops. By understanding the meaning-making framework in professional identity development, school counselors may be in a better position to determine their roles and functions for serving students and the school community. Further, counselor educators will be better able to provide training to students aspiring to become professional school counselors. Because professional identity development is a process rather than an outcome-which begins in training and continues throughout one's career-it is best studied with emerging research paradigms (e.g., qualitative methods). One such research paradigm is grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990). A grounded theory orientation allows theoretical categories to emerge from the data that explain how individuals continually process and respond to a problem. Data are gathered primarily through interviews and are analyzed inductively. The resulting theory is thus grounded in real-world patterns. A judgment can then be made about the adequacy of the research and the credibility of the newly developed theory. A qualitative study was undertaken to propose a grounded theory that will contribute to an understanding of school counselors' professional identity development. Based on a review of the literature, the salient theme related to the professionalization of school counseling seemed to be one of conflict or, more specifically, conflict decisions. …

The Positive Effects of Mentoring Economically Disadvantaged Students.

Abstract: Asizable proportion of economically disadvantaged, but able, students might not be able to realize their potential during their school years and beyond due, in part, to the complexity of factors associated with their home environment (Clark, 1988; McLoyd, 1990). Volumes of case studies, biographies, and autobiographies of successful individuals from economically disadvantaged backgrounds reveal the often pivotal role supportive mentoring by adults played in their lives. For example, in interviews with 500 economically disadvantaged youth, Lefkowitz (1986) found that a majority of them credited their success to the support of a caring adult in their lives. Countless and moving success stories have been described in various media sources in which youths tell how their lives were turned around through a mentoring relationship with a caring adult (cf. Morgan, 1995; Smalley, 1993). Given mentoring's appeal, it is not surprising that: "the current mentoring movement has spawned not only a flurry of activity, but enormous expectations for its effectiveness in helping disadvantaged youth" (Freedman, 1991, p. 41). The importance of mentors in youths' lives could be explained from several different perspectives. According to social capital theory (Coleman, 1987,1991), a mentoring relationship constitutes a social capital that is critical to human development, because it enables students to develop the necessary attitudes, effort, and conception of self that they need to succeed in school and as adults. Social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) has postulated that humans tend to emulate the behavior they see in others they care for and admire. From this perspective, formal mentoring programs establish the critical oneon-one relationship with a caring adult, which supports the healthy development of youth. Egan (1994) has indicated a counseling perspective in which a mentor is considered to play similar roles to a counselor who helps clients have realistic beliefs, reduce fears and anxieties, and develop working knowledge, life skills, and resources so that they can succeed. Human performance is influenced by one's perceived competence, positive expectancies, perceived control, and will power (Bandura, 1977, 1986; Harter, 1983). Similarly, poor performance derives not only from deficits in skills and abilities, but also from doubts, anxieties, negative expectations, low perceived effectance, low perceived control, pessimism, low selfefficacy, and low self-esteem (Bandura, 1977, 1986; Harter, 1982; Scheier, Weintraub, & Carver, 1986). Accordingly, Bandura (1977, 1986) demonstrated the power of one's beliefs over one's current ability in explaining performance. For example, he explained that the stronger one's perceived self-efficacy, the more effort one will exert and the more one will persist on a given task. Other researchers have examined the role of future expectancies or aspirations on current performance. Singer (1974) and Torrance (1983) both noted that the way students see their future is directly related to their academic performance as well as their ability to live, cope, and grow in a high-change society. The theory of possible selves (Markus & Nurius, 1986) points out the importance of self-knowledge that pertains to how individuals think about their potential and about their future. Markus, Cross, and Wurf (1990) maintain that long-term possible selves give form and direction to self-regulation, planning, and strategy selection. Day, Borkowski, Dietmeyer, Howsepian, and Saenz (1992) note that: Positive visions of one's future (such as 'me as a physician ) give meaning to school subjects related to those visions ('I study science so that I can realize my goal to become a physician ). (p. 185) According to an earlier study of successful persons from seriously economically disadvantaged backgrounds (Glaser & Ross, 1970), one of the main characteristics that differentiates successful persons and unsuccessful persons with both Black and Mexican ethnicity is goal orientation: Successful persons have longrange goals toward which they have moved by planning, preparation, work, or some kind of consistent effort, whereas unsuccessful persons have preferred short-range goals with tangible pleasures or rewards that involve little planning or consistent effort, nor do they talk in terms of goals. …

A Play Therapy Intervention and Its Relationship to Self-Efficacy and Learning Behaviors.

Abstract: When an elementary student exhibits behaviors that are disruptive to learning or that prevent the child from reaching his or her potential, teachers refer the student to the school counselor for individual counseling. However, young students often do not have knowledge of or words to express the conflict that is behind the behaviors. Play therapy is a counseling intervention that is based on the premise that children communicate and express inner conflicts and feelings through play (Axline, 1947; Campbell, 1993). Childcentered play therapy advocates that the nonjudgmental acceptance, warmth, and empathy inherent in the relationship between counselor and child enables the child to play out the issues that are of concern and to move to new, more productive behaviors (Axline, 1947; Landreth, 1991). This is a study about child-centered play therapy in the schools. The question asked was, "Do children who are exposed to a brief play therapy intervention exhibit improved classroom learning behaviors and beliefs of self-efficacy?" The above research question emerges from both literature and practice. Currently, individual counseling is one of the primary functions of elementary school counselors (Borders & Drury, 1992; Schmidt, 1993). While the literature acknowledges this counseling role (Bailey, Deery, Gehrke, Perry, & Whitledge, 1989), few studies address the issue of client change as a result of a school counseling intervention (Gerler, 1992; Gibson, Mitchell, & Basile, 1993). We could find no studies that investigated individual counseling in a school, specifically play therapy, with a population from which generalizations could be made. Further, a review of the empirical research on play therapy shows the insufficiency of methodologically adequate research studies (Hellendoom, van der Kooij, & Sutton-Smith, 1994; Milos & Reiss, 1982). Thus, the individual counseling role of the school counselor who uses play interventions does not have the empirical database to enable a counselor to make informed decisions about treatment modalities. This experimental study begins to address this gap in research literature. While the use of play therapy as a counseling intervention in the schools has not always been perceived as congruent with the school counselor role of individual counselor (Golden, 1985), it is acknowledged that young children communicate conflicts through play (Barlow, Strother, & Landreth, 1985; Campbell, 1993; Landreth, 1987). Perhaps the issue concerns what constitutes therapy and the place of various interventions in the schools. While the debate continues (Landreth, 1987), there appears to be an increase in play therapy workshops, conference sessions, books, and journal articles as well as an increase in counselor use of play therapy techniques. This study examines the effects of working individually with school children through a time-limited play therapy intervention, an idea espoused from anecdotal evidence by Osterweil (1986). One of the outcome variables studied is the selfefficacy of a child for both learning and coping behaviors. If we could increase self-efficacy-an individual's belief about personal ability to transform knowledge and skills into necessary behaviors-would there be changes in classroom behavior? Research in this area typically focuses on one relationship, for example, between math skills and self-efficacy (Bandura & Schunk, 1981) or agoraphobic behaviors and self-efficacy (Bandura, Adams, Hardy, & Howells, 1980). These studies found that increasing mastery performance leads to increased self-efficacy. In addition, Bandura found that clients whose fears were decreased through guided mastery in a fearful situation made changes in other areas of their lives showing, therefore, an increase in coping efficacy (Evans, 1989). Thus, if performance in coping behaviors increases as a result of play therapy in a play situation, then it is reasonable to presume that self-efficacy will increase in other areas of learning. …

School Counselors and Confidentiality: Factors Affecting Professional Choices.

Abstract: Confidentiality has long been held as critical to gaining a client's trust. Children have the right to expect that the adult protection includes protection of their privacy rights (Huey & Remley, 1988a). Zingaro (1983) believes that a child's right to privacy, regardless of the child's age, should only be compromised in very extreme circumstances; however, extreme circumstances can be variously interpreted. It is widely believed that without the assurance of confidentiality, many students would not seek help or would not be entirely forthcoming (Ford, Millstein, Halpern-Felsher, & Irwin, 1997). School counselors are frequently confronted with the challenge of balancing the rights of minor clients for confidentiality with the legitimate rights and concerns of others and a counselor's responsibility to act in a minor child's best interest. In a 1983 unsuccessful suit Roman v. Appleby, brought by parents against a school counselor, a U. S. federal district court noted that in schools the constitutional rights of children, parents, administrators, and teachers all compete (American Counseling Association, 1993). Managing confidentiality is often the most difficult ethical issue facing school counselors. Counselor Codes and Confidentiality for Minors The primacy of confidentiality is clear in the codes of ethics and standards of practice for the American Counseling Association (ACA) and the American School Counselors Association (ASCA), which devote considerable attention to confidentiality. ACA (1995) defines a counselor's obligations to all clients and to minor clients in particular, "Counselors act in the best interests of clients and take measures to safeguard confidentiality" (p 3). The American School Counselor Association (1992) makes its position clear: "Each person has the right to privacy and thereby the right to expect the counselor-client relationship to comply with all laws, policies and ethical standards pertaining to confidentiality" (p. 1). Concurrently, both ACA and ASCA suggest collaboration with parents and families in situations that involve minor clients and their confidentiality. "A school counselor respects the inherent rights and responsibilities of the parents for their children and endeavors to establish a cooperative relationship with parents to facilitate the maximum development of the counselee" (ASCA, 1992, p. 2). Complicating Factors Inconsistent Rules and Confidentiality with Minors ASCA (1992; 1986) repeatedly refers to counselors' obligations to law and local guidelines. Yet these guidelines often vary considerably between states and/or local jurisdictions and may vary within school districts or by level of school (Baker, 1996). Courts have dealt both with parental rights and the establishment of a mature-minor concept in terms of an adolescent owning their privacy as well as other rights (Fischer & Sorenson, 1996). Schmidt (1996) suggests that some states have specifically granted confidentiality (in the form of privilege) to students while other states are mute. School board policies and community standards may necessitate breaking confidentiality. One Florida school board has established specific procedures for school personnel when dealing with issues of contraceptives and abortion (Clay County Public School Board, 1996). Even when the administrative policies or rules are clear, some counselors express ambivalence about following them. In Davis and Mickelson s (1994) survey of school counselors, ethical dilemmas that involved issues of student client privacy, confidentiality, and parental rights received less than 50% agreement regarding the preferred ethical or correct legal choices. Research with helping professionals, for example, suggests that knowledge of the rules of abuse reporting does not always predict compliance (Butz, 1985; Crenshaw, Lichtenberg, & Bartell, 1993). Parental Rights ASCA (1992;1986) recognizes that school counselors have multiple obligations that extend beyond their student client, including families, teachers, administrators, and other students. …

The Impact of an Intervention on Career Decision-Making Self-Efficacy and Career Indecision

Abstract: It is essential for students to develop career decisionmaking skills during the high school years. A major objective for many high school career development programs is for students to acquire career decision-making skills (Herr & Cramer, 1996). According to Krumboltz (1979), career decision-making skills are developed from learning experiences. Given the career decisions students make as they prepare for the transition from high school to employment or further education, acquiring career decision-making skills is important. Changes in the economy resulting in downsizing, dislocation, and layoffs, and the number of adults choosing to make job changes also make it important for high school students to learn effective career decision-making skills. Effective career decision-making is important because career decisions affect lifestyle. Hackett and Betz (1995) state: "There are few other decisions that exert as profound an influence on people's lives as the choice of a field of work or career" (p. 249). Effective career decision-making is also important for our country. Bandura (1995) states: "The new realities of the information era require advanced cognitive and selfmanagement competencies to fulfill complex occupational roles and to manage the maze of demands of contemporary life" (p. xi). America must have productive workers who can make successful transitions to the changing workplace. Career decision-making self-efficacy is a relevant construct to consider when addressing the career development needs of students. Career decision-making self efficacy was defined by Taylor and Betz (1983) as "expectations of self-efficacy with respect to the specific tasks and behaviors required in making career decisions" (pp. 64-65). Betz and Hackett (1986) note the usefulness of career self-efficacy and recommended that future research using samples other than college students investigate the effectiveness of theory-based interventions. Few studies have reported investigation of career decision-making self-efficacy in high school students (Gillespie & Hillman, 1993; Urakami, 1993). In addition, research has been conducted on gender differences; however, the results have been inconclusive (Bergeron & Romano, 1994; Gillespie & Hillman, 1993; Luzzo & Ward,1995; Taylor & Betz,1983). Lent and Hackett (1987) state: "A slightly different, but related issue involves viewing self-efficacy as, itself, the target of treatment. To the extent that weak self-efficacy expectations may restrict career development, systematic efforts to promote self-efficacy may be necessary" (p. 376). There is interest in career decision-making self-efficacy; however, the need exists for additional research using theory-based interventions designed to enhance students' career efficacy beliefs. Career indecision is an additional construct relevant to the career development of students. Career indecision has been described as a multidimensional construct (Fuqua & Hartman,1983a,1983b; Hartman, Fuqua, & Jenkins,1986) "which includes, but is not limited to, being unsure of a college major or future career" (Sepich, 1987, p. 8). It has been found to be negatively related to career decision-making self-efficacy (Gillespie & Hillman,1993; Mathieu, Sowa, & Niles, 1993; Taylor & Betz,1983). Providing career guidance activities as part of the school counseling program is a way to help students learn career decision-making skills and to address career decision-making self-efficacy and career indecision. Interventions have been implemented to teach career decision-making skills to high school students (Jepsen, Dustin, & Miars,1982; Krumboltz & Hamel,1977; Savickas,1990). Crites (1978) identified career choice competencies that address the skills needed for career decision making. The competencies include accurate selfappraisal, gathering occupational information, goal selection, making future plans, and problem solving. …

Children's Occupational Aspirations: Comparisons by Gender, Gender Role Identity; and Socioeconomic Status.

Abstract: Career development is considered a lifelong process, although little attention has been given to the process in early childhood. Eli Ginzberg is credited with first including childhood in career theory based on personal development (Trice, Hughes, Odom, Woods, & McClellan, 1995). Ginzberg's view of occupational choice was that it is a developmental process beginning in early childhood which consists of a series of decisions based on interest, ability, and opportunity (Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axellrad, & Herma, 1951). As children develop career awareness, they fantasize about occupational choices, make tentative decisions, and then choose occupations based on a realistic assessment of self and the environment (Ginzberg et al., 1951). The most recent theoretical position concerning the role of childhood in career development is offered by Gottfredson (1981). This theory proposes that children develop career choices in four stages: 1. Orientation to size and power (ages 3-5) 2. Orientation to sex roles (ages 6-8) 3. Orientation to social valuation (ages 9-13) 4. Orientation to self (beginning around age 14) During the second stage, occupational choices are more likely to be based on gender role. Social class and socioeconomic differences become apparent during the third stage (Gottfredson, 1981). Gender-role identity refers to the degree to which individuals consider themselves to be androgynous, masculine, or feminine (Boldizar, 1991). Gender-role stereotyping, which is the attribution of certain traits or behaviors as male or female specific, functions on assumptions made by individuals about appropriate attitudes, behaviors, and personality characteristics for males and females. According to Havighurst (1983), children acquire a gender-role identity via family, peer group, and school experiences. Through these experiences, children learn to consider themselves to be some degree of either masculine or feminine. These experiences may also foster gender-role stereotyping (Feingold, 1988; McKenna & Ferrero, 1991; Miller & Stanford, 1987. Cook (1993) suggested that our society continues to be differentiated based on genderrole stereotypes. According to the U. S. Department of Labor (1996), women are concentrated in very few occupations-administrative support, clerical, service, and sales. Societal attitudes reflecting stereotypical occupational roles for men and women are persistent. Work done in the area of gender role and gender-role stereotyping has added valuable information about why both men and women, but particularly women, have not considered the full range of occupational options open to them (Barnhart, 1983; Boldizar, 1991; Burnett, Anderson, & Heppner, 1995; Gianakos, 1995). Despite this increased knowledge and major advances resulting from federal legislation, gender disparity continues to exist in the workplace. Gender-role stereotyping and its influence on occupational choice among children has been recognized as pervasive. Numerous studies have found that young children continue to think of occupations in terms of their being male or female and consider them within this context (cf., Barclay, 1974; Clark, 1967; Etaugh & Liss, 1992; O'Hara, 1962; Rea-Poteet & Martin, 1991). Such thinking may continue to promote the gender specific choices of both boys and girls, limiting career opportunities for both. Little research has been conducted to investigate socioeconomic status and career choice among children. Yet, there is agreement among career theorists that socioeconomic status influences and is influenced by occupational choice (Amundson, 1995; Gottfredson, 1981; Osipow, 1968; Roe, 1956). Sewell, Haller, and Straus (1957) found that boys and girls from families of higher socioeconomic status were more likely to select professional occupations. These findings were further supported by later research (Brook, Whiteman, Peisach, & Deutsch, 1974; Clark, 1967; Sewell & Shah, 1968). …

Art Therapy with Adolescents: Making It Work for School Counselors.

Abstract: In recent years, secondary school counselors have found less time available for individual and small group counseling due to larger caseloads, more emphasis on college placement, and mounting paperwork involving referrals, scheduling, and special education regulations. One solution to this dilemma is the increased use of brief or time-limited counseling techniques (Bruce & Hopper, 1997; LaFountain, Garner, & Eliason, 1996; Murphy, 1994). Although only occasionally considered, using art when counseling adolescents can achieve the same goals as time-effective counseling (Atlas, Smith, & Sessoms, 1992; Goldstein-Roca & Crisafulli, 1994; Tibbetts & Stone, 1990). Perhaps counselors may assume that they are restricted to classical art therapy, which is grounded in psychodynamic theory. Numerous methods of art therapy have evolved from the classical approach. These more recent approaches may provide some additional advantages beyond traditional therapeutic methods when working with adolescents in schools. They may be perceived as less threatening than many traditional therapeutic interventions (Williams, 1976). They can also be easily implemented in an educational setting and are appropriate for adolescents with varied developmental, learning, and social or emotional needs (Stanley & Miller, 1993). This article aims to provide for secondary school counselors a step-by-step introduction to the use of art when counseling adolescents, as well as successful and time-effective interventions. First, art therapy is defined and its theoretical evolution is presented. Second, a rationale for the process, based on adolescent developmental needs, is provided. The next sections explore initiating the process, choosing materials, and using art in the counseling process. Finally, an example of the use of art as therapy, as applied with an adolescent substance abuser, is presented. Art Therapy Then and Now Art therapy is "A psychoeducational therapeutic intervention that focuses upon art media as primary expressive and communicative channels" (Shostak, 1985, p.19). Through the art therapy process, the adolescent explores personal problems and developmental potential via nonverbal and verbal expression. This process can facilitate appropriate social behavior and promote healthy affective development. Art therapy can be used with a myriad of school problems, including academic difficulties, peer pressure, conflicts with teachers, and career exploration. It is especially effective with adolescents with special learning needs because it bypasses the use of verbal skills that may be part of the student's learning deficit. Art therapy has also been used with home-related problems such as divorce and separation, death of a parent, addiction, and abuse (Shostak, 1985). The roots of art therapy are grounded in traditional psychoanalytic theory from the 1940s (Naumburg, 1950). Initially, the art psychotherapy process encouraged the expression and interpretation of the unconscious experience; students drew spontaneously and were encouraged to free associate to their pictures (Naumburg, 1966). The counselor served as an interpreter in this art-in-therapy approach. The art-as-therapy approach proposed in this article evolved from the art-in-therapy theory. It is based on an awareness of psychic processes, including the unconscious, but does not rely on the uncovering of unconscious material or the interpretation of unconscious meaning (Kramer, 1979). The goals of art as therapy are to support the ego, foster the development of identity, and promote maturation. In this approach the counselor functions more as a facilitator. Art can easily be integrated into client-centered, behavioral, cognitive, and solution-focused theories. Client-centered art therapy encourages the adolescent's use of art for self- actualization via self-expression and integration of perception with an understanding of self and environment (Cochran, 1996). …

Closing in on the Statewide Implementation of a Comprehensive Guidance Program Model

Abstract: Children and adolescents growing up in the worlds of today are facing a bewildering array of new and old challenges. A rapidly changing work world and labor force; violence in the home, school, and community; divorce; teenage suicide; substance abuse; and sexual experimentation are just a few examples. These challenges are not abstract aberrations. These challenges are real, and they are having substantial impact on the personal/social, career, and academic development of our children and adolescents (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994). In the 1980s, in response to challenges such as these, individuals inside and outside of education began to call for education reform. Education reform begun in the 1980s, to respond in part to these challenges, continues today and probably will continue into the 21st century. Unfortunately, many education reform efforts during the 1980s neglected the field of guidance. Little was said then about the contributions of guidance and the work of school counselors to the overall achievement of educational goals. This lack of attention to guidance and the work of school counselors continues to this day This omission is serious because: "Although counselors are often seen as peripheral to the mainstream of education, they in fact occupy a crucial position. For this reason, efforts to improve the nation's schools and create a more equitable system require careful consideration of guidance and counseling" (Hart & Jocobi, 1992, p. 80). Understanding the important contributions school counselors make in the schools of Missouri to respond to these and similar challenges, the Missouri Department of Elementary and Secondary Education (MDESE) undertook the development of the Missouri Comprehensive Guidance Program (MCGP) in 1984. The goal of the MCGP was to refocus and redirect guidance activities and develop guidance and the work of school counselors in the schools within a program framework. It was based on work that had begun in 1981 to restructure guidance in the St. Joseph Missouri School District (Hargens & Gysbers, 1984). In turn, the work on restructuring guidance programs in St. Joseph was based on earlier work by Gysbers (1978) and Gysbers and Moore (1974;1981). The first version of the MCGP was designed for use at the secondary level. It was field tested in selected secondary schools in Missouri from 1984 to 1985 until the close of the 1987-1988 school year. While this field testing was taking place, work was underway to extend the MCGP to the elementary school level. This work was completed during 1987-1988 allowing training on the full K-12 MCGP to begin during the 1988-1989 school year continuing on until the close of the 1997-1998 school year. During this time period (14 school years) school counselors and administrators in 441 out of 525 school districts across Missouri received training on how to implement the MCGP in their local school districts. The MCGP contains three major elements: content, organizational framework, and resources. Figure 1 provides a graphic representation of the MCGP. The content element of the program consists of student competencies grouped into the three areas of career planning and exploration, knowledge of self and others, and educational and vocational development. The organizational framework element of the program contains structural components, program components, and school counselor time allocations. The structural components define and provide a rationale for the program as well as present the management structures necessary to operate a program. The program components identify and describe the four parts of the delivery system that organize the program's guidance activities. Suggested distributions of school counselor time necessary to carry out the guidance activities of the program components also are shown. Finally, the third element of the MCGP describes the resources necessary to fully support the day-by-day operations of the program (Gysbers, Starr, & Magnuson, 1998). …

The School Counselor's Role in Facilitating Multisystemic Change.

Abstract: Traditional counseling paradigms emphasize change for the individual as a result of individually focused interventions. Frequently teachers, parents, and administrators look to the school counselor to effect change in a student's behavior, attitude, or affect through the direct application of individual or group counseling techniques. Many of the problems presented by students in today's schools, however, are much too complex and multidimensional to be solved by interventions that only target the individual. Effective problem solving in such cases requires a more systemicecological assessment that defines problems by the multiple contexts in which students grow and develop and derives solutions from multisystemic intervention plans (Collins & Collins,1994; Fine,1992; Henggeler & Borduin,1990; Henggeler, Schoenwald, Borduin, Rowland, & Cunningham, 1998; Lerner, 1995). This article examines how school counselors can apply systems theory and social ecology to problem conceptualization and intervention planning. The article also explores the implications of this broadened paradigm for the school counselor's role. Recently it has been suggested that school counselors adopt a family-systems approach when working with students (Hinkle, 1993; Kraus, 1998; Lewis, 1996; Peeks, 1993). A multisystemic approach expands upon this position by suggesting that a family is only one of several influential systems that may be contributing to a student's difficulties. A multisystemic perspective suggests that in order to understand a student's behavior, counselors need to be familiar with the multiple, interrelated systems that are an ongoing part of a student's life (Henggeler & Borduin, 1990; Henggeler et al., 1998). In addition to the family, these systems may include the peer group, the school, and the community. Strategies for change focus on one of these systems or a combination of systems (Henggeler & Borduin, 1990; Henggeler et al.,1998). Research related to strategies for preventing high-risk behavior (substance abuse, teen pregnancy, delinquency, dropping out of school) further supports the need for such an approach (Dryfoos, 1990). Low resistance to peer influences, lack of parental support, and life in a deprived neighborhood are three factors found to be consistently related to high-risk behavior (Dryfoos, 1990). Research on multisystemic interventions with adolescents with complex problems also demonstrates the efficacy of this method (Henggeler, Melton, & Smith, 1992; Henggeler, Schoenwald, Pickrel, Rowland & Santos, 1994). A Systems-Ecological Perspective A multisystemic approach to problem solving draws from both systems theory and social ecology. Systems Theory Systems theory expands our understanding of the individual beyond the individual's psychological development to a view that positions the individual within the context of relationships and interactions with others (Fine, 1992; Kraus, 1998; Worden, 1999). A system represents more than just the sum of its parts. The parts themselves are interrelated and interdependent (Worden, 1999). This interconnectedness suggests that change in one part of a system can cause a ripple effect that leads to change in other parts of the same system. The school counselor, for example, receives a self-referral from a third grade student who complains that other students pick on her and that she has few friends. With the client's permission, the school counselor follows up by eliciting information from the teacher about the teacher's perceptions of this student's and other classmates' social behavior. The teacher confirms that the client is being teased and taunted and that some of the students' classmates can be unkind. The teacher feels uncertain about how to intervene to improve the situation. The counselor helps the teacher organize a process within the classroom for rewarding and recognizing positive peer relations. The counselor also works directly with the class on social skill development. …

School Counselors in School-Community Partnerships: Opportunities and Challenges

Abstract: Those who desire improvements in classroom learning must realize and acknowledge that school reform, especially when it focuses on disadvantaged students, cannot easily succeed if it ignores the circumstances of their out-of-school lives. (Maeroff, 1998, p. 5) Contemporary education reform efforts are clearly challenged by what have been referred to as the new morbidities-poor nutrition, unsafe sex, drug and alcohol abuse, familial and community violence, teenage pregnancy and parenting, lack of job skills, inadequate access to health care, and homelessness. The impact of these stressors on the educational achievement of young people is widely recognized. Research has found that conditions such as personal and familial substance abuse (Wills, Vaccaro, & McNamara, 1992), maltreatment and abuse (Eckenrode, Laird, & Doris, 1993; Graziano & Mills,1992; Kurtz, Gaudin, Wodarski, & Howing, 1993), malnourishment (Grantham-McGregor, Powell, Walker, Chang, & Fletcher, 1994), exposure to violence (Warner & Weist, 1996), and homelessness (Masten,1992; Schmitz, Wagner, & Menke, 1995) are related to low academic achievement, impaired cognitive functioning, and poor behavioral and emotional well-being (Furstenberg, Eccles, Elder, Cook, & Sameroff, 1997). In short, the new morbidities result in significant barriers to learning. In the face of a pressing need to address these barriers to learning and a recognition that schools cannot do it alone, educators and policy makers have called for renewing and rebuilding the connection between communities and schools. School-community partnerships can provide a close-knit web of services and resources, which have been demonstrated to make a positive difference for at-risk children and youth (Dryfoos, 1990; Wang, Haertel, & Walberg,1995). In serving as "liaison between teachers, parents, support personnel, and community resources to facilitate successful student development" (American School Counselor Association,1997, p. 12), school counselors are positioned to play an important leadership role in the efforts to connect school and community (Keys & Bemak,1997). At the same time, the school-community partnership movement can support and enhance the mission of school counselors to foster academic, career, and personal-social development. This article reviews the development of efforts to link schools and communities and delineates the various ways in which the profession of school counseling and the school-community partnership movement might positively impact one another. Development of School-Community Linkages Historically, schools have long been aware of the need to respond to the nonacademic needs of children. Confronted by the pervasive effects of environmental stressors on learning and behavior, schools have traditionally sought to lessen the impact and address the consequences of those stressors on students. As early as 1890, reformers were advocating the provision of medical and dental examinations, lunches, summer programs, recreational activities, and child welfare officers in U.S. schools (Tyack, 1992). In the years since that time, school systems have made significant efforts to address a range of children's developmental, health, and nutritional needs. By 1940, annual medical and dental exams were provided, and school lunches became the norm by 1950 (Myrick,1993; Tyack,1992). While schools and communities collaborated in funding these efforts, the schools were responsible for implementing the services. As the decades progressed, the federal and state governments began to increase funding to community agencies to address some of these needs (e.g., through entitlement programs for health care through Medicaid and for nutrition through the Food Stamp Program). In recent years, government-supported community health and mental health centers, hospitals, social service centers, and legal and housing agencies have provided an array of services to families and children. …

Computer Utilization by School Counselors.

Abstract: are in the midst of what Toffler (Mead, 1996) has termed the information age, with a third shift in the U.S. vocational landscape. We have moved from an agrarian economy to an industrial-based economy and now into a data-driven, super high-speed, information-processing economy that Toffler terms the information revolution. The United States leads the world in state-of-the-art computing technology and software design and production. A recent report, America's Children and the Information Superhighway (1996), noted that while in 1984 only 25% of workers used computers on the job, the figure had risen to 47% by 1993. Today, well over half of the existing jobs require some degree of information and technological literacy. It is estimated that in the year 2000, 60% of the new jobs will require technological skills possessed by only 22% of the young people entering the labor market! A 1993 study reported that a shocking 80% of all school computers were considered to be "obsolete" (America's Children and the Information Superhighway, 1996). Moore (1992) examined computer applications by Arkansas school counselors as part of his doctoral research. He sent 1,174 surveys to school counselors employed in the 1989-90 school year and received 781 (67%) responses. Next he chose a subsample of counselors and found that about 30% of the counselors were using computers for counseling-related tasks. Sabella (1996) offered school counselors specific time-saving tips and showed how personal computers could easily automate and expedite routine tasks and help counselors easily manage heavy workloads. There is little doubt that the computer can represent a powerful tool for performing many counseling-related tasks, but little is known about the extent to which school counselors are using this tool in their work. The present study sought to investigate computer utilization among school counselors in the Commonwealth of Kentucky in an attempt to determine the extent to which computers were being used in the schools. Two hundred public schools with at least one counselor on staff were randomly selected from among the public schools listed in the Kentucky School Directory. The pool consisted of 50 elementary, 50 middle, 50 secondary, and 50 vocational schools. Of the 200 surveys mailed, 92 completed surveys were returned, representing a return rate of 46%. Of these, 68 were completed by female (73.9%) and 24 by male respondents (26.1%). The age of all respondents ranged from 29 to 58 years (M = 43.1 years, SD = 6.93 years). Instrument The instrument used to collect data was a 19-item survey developed for the purpose of soliciting information from school counselors in two general areas. The first area solicited information about the counselors as well as their experience in education and in counseling. The second area solicited information regarding the availability and current use of computers by school counselors. Specifically, the instrument was used to determine (a) the availability and type of computer equipment provided or available to the school counselor, (b) whether the respondent had and used a computer at home, (c) the amount of time a computer was used each week in job-related work, (d) the nature and type of the work performed, (e) the level of skill and confidence the respondent had in using a computer, (f) the degree to which a computer was seen as enhancing the productivity of the counselor, and (g) the type of software applications most frequently used. Procedure After selecting the 200 public schools within the state, the Computer Utilization Survey (CUS) was mailed to each school along with a request that the survey be completed by the school counselor and returned in a self-addressed and stamped envelope. All data were collected during a 5-week period during March and April of 1996. The responses to each of the 19 items were then tabulated. Following initial examination of the responses, three of the items (#11 relating to weekly computer usage, #14 relating to computer confidence, and #15 relating to enhanced productivity) were statistically evaluated to determine if significant differences existed among the elementary, middle, and secondary respondents using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). …

Counseling Muslim Children in School Settings

Abstract: Although many religious groups in the United States are experiencing a decline in membership, Islam is the nation's fastest growing religion (Cooper, 1993). Recent estimates show that Islam claims approximately 6 million U.S. adherents (Bedell, 1993). Due to immigration and conversion, Muslims (adherents to Islam) are becoming more and more numerous in all facets of American life. American Muslims represent many cultures and include immigrants from Pakistan, Iran, India, Southeast Asia, Indonesia, the Middle East, and Afghanistan as well as African Americans who have adopted the faith as part of the Nation of Islam movement. Negative stereotyping of Muslims as fanatical extremists may possibly have caused school personnel to view Muslim students and their families in a different light than other students. Confronted with this stereotyping coupled with the outright racist response from other cultures, Muslims have found it difficult to merge into mainstream U.S. society and maintain their identity as Muslims (Jackson, 1995). At the least, counselors and other educators who do not take the time to become aware of the Muslim students' cultural needs may unwittingly find themselves working contrary to the students' religious and cultural values. Religiously and culturally, Muslims espouse values different from those of mainstream U.S. society (Banawi, 1993). Because of the rising numbers of Muslims who are becoming integrated into society (Kelly, Aridi, & Bakhtiar, 1996), it is essential that sensitivity to this population be demonstrated by U.S. school personnel. Kelly et al. (1996) noted that Muslims place high value on benevolence and conformity while generally disdaining such Western values as power, hedonism, and excessive stimulation. Since school counselors often find their role includes assisting students in adjusting to the school environment (Myrick, 1997), they can play a major role in helping Muslim students adjust. Counselors often find themselves lacking knowledge of Arab and other Muslim populations. Little has been written either in multicultural texts (c.f. Sue & Sue, 1993) or in the research literature on counseling Muslim students in public schools (Banawi, 1993) or for that matter on counseling Muslims in general (Haddad & Lummis, 1987; Jafari, 1993; Kelly, et al, 1996). Jackson (1995) has only recently offered information for school counselors regarding the culture and values of Arabs, which though a representative group of Muslims, is still a minority of Muslims worldwide. Therefore the purpose of the present article is to describe some basic issues regarding the education and counseling of Muslims and to offer some general suggestions to help school counselors work effectively with Muslim students. Organizing Themes The authors interviewed several Muslim families with children ranging in age from 3 to adulthood. While such a small sample cannot be deemed representative of U.S. Muslims as a group, from the dialogues several themes emerged that illustrate issues expressed by other writers. Each of these areas has implications for school counseling. These themes can be divided into the following areas: Home/school relations Family issues Peer relations and dating * Self-identity Dietary issues Cultural events Curricular problems These psycho-social issues are a result of interaction of religion, family, Muslim culture, and mainstream U.S. culture. Jackson, 1995). Home/school relations Muslim families place a high value on education and hold educators in high esteem Jackson, 1995). Because of this, Muslim parents hesitate to disturb the operation of the school by requesting conferences or confronting educators regarding cultural issues. The parents want educators to approach them and begin dialogues about the children and their educational needs. It seems they fear being misunderstood, both culturally and as a result of low self-efficacy stemming from their limited English skills. …

A Peer Facilitator-Led Intervention with Middle School Problem-Behavior Students

Abstract: The issue of problem behaviors permeates our society and has been a critical item of debate in the public school far years. Problem-behavior students concern administrators, teachers, parents, and members of the commmity. Their actions disturb others and detract from an environment conducive to learning. As more attention focuses on problem behaviors (Alexander & Curtis, 1995); educators have became more concerned and have employed strategies and techniques to reduce their occurrence. Problem-behavior students usually have poor attendance records, and when present in school they disrupt classes, distract teachers, and create an atmosphere that is not conducive to learning. Solving problem-behaviors continues to be one of the most crucial issues facing educators and parents today (Wolfgang, 1995.) One of the most innovative approaches in working with these students is to draw upon other youth as helpers. Youth helping youth is a valuable concept. Since the early 1960x, successful peer facilitator training programs have been implemented in high schools and colleges (Myrick & Folk,1991; Tindall, 1995). In the past 15 years, such programs have gained acceptance in elementary and middle schools (Bowman; 1986; Bowman & Myrick, 1987; Myrick, 1997). A renewed interest in peer mediation programs has increased awareness of the need and value of effective training and productive projects (Myrick & Folk, 1991 ). There are four basic peer facilitator or peer helper rates-teacher/counselor assistant, tutor, special friend, and small group leader (Myrick, 1997). Given these roles, young people can work in various helper projects in and out of school. Some projects focus primarily on academic tasks, while others might highlight developmental guidance issues such as conflict resolution, well ness, interpersonal relationships, and problem solving. Peer facilitators have helped students increase their reading comprehension (Land, 1987). Campbell and Myrick (1990 asserted that adult society has failed to provide needed support services to a large number of our nation's youth and that organized peer training prc grams are needed to help satisfy many of the basic psychological needs associated with personal, social, and academic development. Foster-Harrison (1995) suggested that peer facilitator programs could help elementary school students make a transition to middle schools and assist middle school students in the change to high schools. Student decision-making skills, peer relationships, academic skills, and stress management can also be improved through peer projects. School counselors can also benefit from organized peer helper programs. In most schools, counselor-student ratios are high and it is difficult for counselors to meet with all their students. It is especially difficult to give at-risk students the time and attention they need. There are not enough adult helpers. Peer facilitators provide additional resources and can assist counselors in delivering more guidance and counseling services, including those to troubled students. Peer relationships and interventions are powerful. However, more research is needed regarding the effectiveness of peer facilitators, especially with disruptive students. This study investigated the following questions: If problem-behavior students participate in an organized peer facilitator intervention will their selfconcepts improve? Will their attitudes toward others and school be improved? Will such participation positively affect their school attendance and grades? Will discipline referrals of these students be reduced? Method Participants Problem-behavior students. This study focused on peer interventions with problem-behavior middle school students. The general population consisted of approximately 2,500 sixth-grade students from eight middle schools in Alachua County, Florida. The schools are racially integrated, with approximately 70% white and 30% African-American and other minority students. …

Improving Peer Mediation Programs: Student Experiences and Suggestions.

Abstract: Ever the past decade, schools across the United States have implemented peer mediation programs to fulfill the need for better conflict management among school students (Donahue, 1996). The majority of the school-based mediation programs currently in use are based on models of community mediation such as San Francisco's Community Board Program (1987). School-based mediation programs require that student mediators receive several hours of training and roleplay practice in preparation for managing peer conflicts. Once training is completed, students are assigned to mediate playground and lunchroom disputes (Community Board Program, 1987). Due to concern about increasing school violence, students from elementary through senior high school have been learning to mediate peer disputes (Fatum & Hoyle, 1996; Johnson & Johnson, 1996; National Association for Mediation in Education, 1994; Shulman, 1996; Stomfay-Stitz, 1994). Children trained as peer mediators use communication skills, listen to perspectives from each disputant, and elicit from disputants a mutual contribution to the problem's solution. School counselors have played a vital role in training peer mediators as well as in designing and implementing mediation programs within the schools (Hovland, Peterson, & Smaby, 1996; Lane & McWhirter, 1992; Roush & Hall, 1993). An increase in the use of school-based mediation programs has generated interest in program benefits. Educators and school counselors want to know more about the potentially positive and negative aspects of peer mediation. Consequently, a closer look has been taken at the need far using mediation programs in schools as well as the advantages such programs provide (Johnson & Johnson, 1996). Supporters of peer mediation believe that using children to assist other children is a valid and worthwhile way to resolve conflicts between children (Lane & McWhirter, 1992). Jason and Rhodes (1989 have discussed the importance of children being role models to other children. They suggested that children could serve in the capacity of modeling appropriate behavior and in creating and maintaining social norms by defining behaviors as appropriate or deviant. Research exists to support this notion. Kelly, Munoz, and Snowden (1979) found that having students involved in prevention programs was advantageous for program success. Other researchers (Klepp, Halper, & Perry, 1986) reported that students who were peer leaders had more credibility than did children who were not leaders during social exchanges. There is also evidence that children involved in conflirt management programs gain many benefits from their participation Johnson, Johnson, & Dudley 1992; Shulman, 1996; Stomfay-Stitz, 1994; Van Slyck & Stern, 1991). The value of participation for school students has most often been reported by administrators, teachers, and school counselors (Araki, 1990; Johnson, Johnson, Dudley et al., 1995; Lane & McWhirter, 1992). Benefits attributed to mediators include improved student behavior, increased peer status; academic improvement, enhanced leadership skills, higher self-esteem, and better resolution of problems at school and at home (Araki, 1990; Gentry & Benenson, 1992; 1993; Hart & Gunty, 1997; Lane & McWhirter, 1992). Reports from student mediators and disputants have also been used to assess the positive impact that the program has on students and schools (Araki, 1990; Roush & Hall, 1993; Van Slyck & Stern, 1991). The findings from these reports suggest that while some children from the general school population may benefit from mediation, the students who gain the most from the programs are the peer mediators themselves (Van Slyck & Stern, 1991). Indeed, peer mediators from across different mediation programs are thought to develop an improved ability to express problems and to develop positive problem-solving skills, better communication patterns, and improved self-image Lane & McWhirter, 1992; Roush & Hall; 1993; Stomfay-Stitz, 1994). …

Soaring on the Wings of the Eagle: Wellness of Native American High School Students.

Abstract: There are many definitions of the term, Native American The US Bureau of Indian Affairs (1988) legally defines Native American as a person who is an enrolled or registered member of a tribe or whose blood quantum is one-fourth or more, genealogically derived from Native American ancestry The US Bureau of the Census (1991) relies on self-identification to determine who is Native American Oswalt (1988) points out, however, that "if a person is considered an Indian by other individuals in the community, he or she is legally an Indian[in other words], if an individual is on the roll of a federally recognized Indian group, then he or she is an Indian; the degree of Indian blood is of no real consequence, although usually he or she has at least some Indian blood" (p 5) The term Native American as used here, refers to any individual who self-identifies as Native American and maintains cultural identification as a Native American through membership in a Native American tribe recognized by the state or federal government or through other tribal affiliation and community recognition Currently, an estimated 23 million Native Americans live in the United States and the population is steadily growing (USBC, 1991) Native American people exhibit varying levels of acculturation, and they not only come from different tribal groups with different customs, traditions, and beliefs, but also they live in a variety of settings including rural, urban, or reservation (Garrett & Garrett, 1994) Native Americans represent a wide-ranging diversity illustrated by 252 different languages and 558 different tribal nations (Russell, 1988; Thomason, 1991) At the same time, a prevailing sense of Indianness based on a common worldview and common history seems to bind Native Americans together as a people of many peoples (Herring, 1990; Thomason, 1991) Although acculturation is a major factor in the Native American worldview, there tends to be a high degree of psychological homogeneity and a certain degree of shared cultural standards and meanings; based on common core values that exist for traditional Native Americans across tribal groups (DuBray, 1985; Heinrich, Corbine, & Thomas, 1990; Honigmann, 1961; Oswalt,1988; Peregoy, 1993; Sue & Sue, 1990) Nationwide, the Native American population consists of a large proportion of young people with an average age of 173 years and an average life expectancy of 475 years, compared to 295 years and an average life expectancy of approximately 75 years for the rest of the US population (Office of Minority Health [OWH], 1990) From an educational standpoint, the relative youth of this population would seem to imply enormous social and economic potential Several studies have demonstrated that tests and teacher reports shoe that Native American children function at the average to superior range up to the fourth grade (Cummins, 1992; Deyhle, 1991; Hornett, 1990; McLaughlin, 1994; Tierney, 1992) However, although many Native American children enter school with an eagerness and willingness to learn, beyond about the fourth grade, their academic performance rapidly declines (Cummins, 1992; Sanders, 1987; Swisher, Hoisch, & Pavel, 1991), resulting in a 40 to 60% school dropout rate, the highest in the nation (National Center for Education Statistics [LACES], 1991) Several reasons for this trend have been suggested, including changes in the quality of family life, institutional racism and discriminatory practices, the cultural irrelevance of educational curriculum, and the social and economic pressures related to competition for success (OMH, 1990; Tierney, 1992) The current social and educational status of Native Americans may serve as an indicator of the social costs of dropping out of school Statistics show that Native Americans have the highest suicide rate (15%j), a median income that is only 50% of that for Whites, an alcoholism rate that is double the national average, and have some of the highest rates of poverty, (244%) and unemployment (40% to 80`h) in the nation (Hodgkinson, 1990; LACES, 1991; OMH, 1990; USBC, 1991) …

The Effect of Three Career Interventions on Educational Choices of Eighth Grade Students.

Abstract: In the winter and springs months, a common event is held for eighth graders in middle schools throughout the nation. A high school guidance counselor unceremoniously visits a feeder middle school for a day to register students for ninth-grade courses in mathematics, science, language arts, and social studies as well as electives. On that particular day, students make critically important educational decisions that may well have career-determining implications (Ethington & Wolfe, 1988; Herr & Cramer, 1990. According to guidelines set forth by the National Career Development Association (NCDA; 1985), the registration for a ninth-grade program of study should be the culmination of a continuous and comprehensive career development effort that begins early in the elementary school years.. By this time, students should have become familiar with broad domains of the world of work; have been able to explore and develop their interests, abilities, values, and talents (Eccles, Adler, & Meece, 1984); have formulated tentative career aspirations that will maximize their human potential (Ethington & Wolfe, 1988; Super, 1990); and have become familiar with necessary enroute educational and occupational attainments to realize their aspirations (Kelly Peterson, & Myrick, 1995). They should also have examined personal, social, and cultural beliefs, biases, and constraints that may possibly discourage or impede progress to the realization of their aspirations (Brooks, 1984; Gottfredson, 1981; Hesketh, Elmslie, & Kaldor, 1990; McLeod, 1989). Female and minority students, in particular, may well have taken advantage of intensive and sensitive guidance interventions to overcome the potential negative influences of Low self-esteem and low career self-efficacy in formulating career aspirations (Fouad, 1995. Haring & Blyard-Tyler, 1984; Mau, Domnick, & Ellsworth, 1995; Smith, 1980). Unfortunately, for a variety of reasons, many students receive neither the kind nor the amount of guidance from middle school teachers and counselors they require to formulate career aspirations needed to guide educational decision making (Buyer, 1993; Evans, 1985; Jenkins, 1987; Prediger & Sawyer, 1988). In addition, parents may not be able to lend adequate support and guidance for educational decisions. According to several research studies (Farmer, Anderson, & Brock, 1991; Mau 1995; Ware & Lee, 1988, parents often feel they passers little knowledge of or control over important decisions students make; even though middle school students tend to value their parents' assistance highly. Lack of adequate preparation for making educational decisions in the transition from eighth grade to high school may have two direct effects. One is that students do not possess clarity of their interests, abilities; values, and talents (i.e., self-knowledge). The other effect is that students acquire only a vague or superficial understanding of the high school curriculum. Thus, students do not possess the foundational components that would enable them to formulate clear and appropriate career aspirations, which serve as a focal point far educational decision making. As a consequence, students may select inappropriate courses, particularly in science and mathematics, that may not directly lead to reaching their aspirations (Chipman & Wilson, 1985; Farmer, Wardrop, Anderson, & Risinger, 1995; Matayas, 1990; Sells, 1978, 1980; Van Fossen & Beck, 1991 ), or choose less challenging courses that will not fully develop their academic or career potential (National Assessment of Educational Progress, 1988; National Center for Educational Statistics, 1984). Moreover, poor Course selection at this level may likely have a ripple effect of not only affecting learning in high school; but also influencing attainments in postsecondary education (Betz, 1985; Betz & Hackett, 1983; DeBoer; 1986): To be ready to make these important transitional educational choices; students must possess two fundamental competencies. …

Teachers' Perceptions of School Counselors with and without Teaching Experience

Abstract: Whether school counselors should have teaching experience has been an issue that has been debated for several decades. On the one hand, there are those who have argued that if school counselors are to help students with educational as well as emotional problems, then prior teaching experience would best qualify them to perform this role (Fredrickson & Pippert, 1964; Tooker, 1957). Proponents of the teaching experience position have also maintained that having teaching experience would give school counselors first-- hand knowledge of school policies and procedures and facilitate relationships with teachers and administrators because "they've walked in the shoes of the educator" (Farwell,1961; Hudson, 1961; Rochester & Cottingham, 1966) On the other hand, others have maintained that teaching experience may actually have a negative impact on a counselor's ability to help others depending on what types of experiences they had as a teacher (Wrenn, 1951). In fact, Arbuckle (1961) states that "Evidence tends at least to point to the possibility that teaching gives one so many bad counseling habits that a major function of counselor education is to help former teachers to unlearn most of what they learned as teachers" (p. 54). This difference of opinion is even reflected in state statutes as approximately 21 states require school counselors to have a teaching certificate to become certified as a school counselor, although there are some variations in terms of the amount of teaching experience that is required of them (Kandor & Bobby, 1992). Although the conventional wisdom has long been that school counselors who have prior teaching experience will be more effective in their roles, research which has been conducted in this area has not necessarily supported this position. Havens (1972) found no significant differences between school counselors with and without teaching experience with regard to perceived effectiveness, as rated by students, administrators and teachers, or employability. Indeed, Beale (1995) indicates that 55% of the principals in his study would be willing to consider applicants for school counseling positions even if the applicants did not have previous teaching experience. Dilley, Foster, and Bowers (1973) had supervisors, principals and associates rate how effective counselors with and without teaching experience were in comparison to other first-year counselors the raters had known on five dimensions of effectiveness (implementing guidance services, staff relationships, working without supervision, adjusting to school conditions, and overall performance). The raters perceived counselors without teaching experience to be as effective or more so than first-year counselors the raters had known on the first three dimensions. In addition, two thirds of the counselors without teaching experience were perceived as being more effective in their overall performance. Unfortunately, Dilley et al. did not compare the ratings of counselors with and without teaching experience nor did they include teachers as part of their sample. In a more recent study, Olson and Allen (1993) had principals rate counselors with and without teaching experience on 13 dimensions that were identified by Myrick (1987) as the major roles and functions served by school counselors. Principals of elementary and high school counselors did not perceive nonteaching counselors to be any less effective than counselors with teaching experience on any of the dimensions. Middle school and junior high school counselors without teaching experience were perceived to be less effective than their counterparts on only three dimensions (teacher consultation, individual counseling, and advisory committee participation). Despite the fact that the research has not shown differences in the perceived level of effectiveness of school counselors with and without teaching experience, opinions regarding this issue continue to linger. …

Priorities and Practices in Field Supervision of School Counseling Students.

Abstract: A fundamental ethical principle undergirding the practice of counseling in all settings is that the counselor must be aware of the limitations of his or her own professional competence and not exceed those limitations in the delivery of service (American Counseling Association, 1995). One strategy recommended (Garret & Schmidt, 1986; Corey, Corey, & Callanan, 1998; Davis & Mickelson, 1994; Herlihy & Corey, 1996) for the ongoing professional development of a counselor is to engage in a supervisory relationship. Supervision stands as a "distinct field of preparation and practice" (Dye & Borders, 1990, p. 32) and a significant training tool for both those in practice and those becoming practitioners. While there has been a recent increase in the research on supervision (Bernard & Goodyear, 1992; Hart & Falvey, 1987; Holloway, 1982; Pitts, 1992; Pitts, Miller, Poidevant, & Meyers-Arvin, 1990), relatively little research has focused on field-site supervision of master's level counseling students, particularly school-based counselors. One possible explanation for the lack of research concerning site supervision of master's level school counseling students is that the roles of the school counselor are numerous and unique when compared to clinicians in other settings. According to the most recent role revision statement by the American School Counselor Association (1990), counselors within our schools are encouraged to engage in individual counseling, consultation, coordination, small group counseling, and large group guidance. The question arises whether or not the supervision that students receive targets similar functions. Borders et al. (1991) noted "the conceptual and empirical supervision literature has emphasized one-toone counseling with scarce mention of other activities such as group counseling, consultation, and assessment" (p. 78). With such a wide definition of role and function it is clear that training and supervision must extend beyond the typical target of individual counseling skills to include the unique cognates and skills required of these other functions (Borders, 1991; Boyd & Walter, 1975; Schmidt & Barret,1983; Wilson & Remley, 1987). The current study was designed to investigate the degree to which on-site supervision time of school counseling practicum students is allocated to these various roles and functions and to identify factors associated with any differential time allocation. Method A three-page questionnaire (see Appendix A) was piloted by three school counselors, representing all levels, who had served as site supervisors for more than 5 years. This group met to provide feedback on format, clarity of definitions and instructions, and wording of items. After revisions, the questionnaire was mailed to 197 Pennsylvania public school counselors. The participants had been identified as previously providing site supervision for practicum students for at least one semester during the past 5 years in a Pennsylvania public school. Some 41 follow-up phone contacts were made one month after the initial mailing. Of the original 197 surveys mailed, 119 (68%) were collected and analyzed. In addition to this data, qualitative data from structured telephone interviews of 12 of the participants were analyzed to gain a more in-depth understanding of the results (see Appendix B). These participants-- approximately matched to the larger sample considering variables such as gender, age, ethnicity, school level, and years of counseling experience-were specifically selected because of their course work or certification in supervision and their extensive supervision experience. The typical respondent was a female site supervisor (67.2%), averaging 45 years of age with an average of 9.8 years of counseling experience. Five respondents were African Americans, two were Hispanic, and the remainder were White. Respondents were equally divided among the three school levels. …

Cooperative Games: A Pathway to Improving Health.

Abstract: "In our present-day civilization people are not well prepared for cooperation. Our training has been too much towards individual success, towards considering what we can get out of life rather than what we can give it." -Alfred Adler Sports, games, and exercise are of considerable importance for school counselors. Counselors are trained to work with the mind, yet they need to include the body in creating healthy habits and experiences (Carlson, 1982). Progress in physical fitness will effect overall functioning (Carlson & Ardell, 1981). Many counseling goals can be achieved through directed physical activity. Improvements in academic learning (Gerler, 1982; Rengstrom & Roux, 1988) and creative thinking (Tuckman & Hinkle, 1986) are associated with exercise. Physically fit children are more likely to exert control over health risks and avoid behavior counterproductive to good health (Brown, 1982). In this article, games refers to physically active, sport-like activities. Physical activity benefits the development and psychological well-being of children (Haskell, Montoye, & Orenstein, 1985). Early physical activity encourages continuing fitness throughout the lifespan (Brown, 1982). Although there has been a steady increase in adult physical fitness over the past 20 years, this is not true for children. In fact, the overall physical conditioning of U.S. youth appears to be declining (Duncan, Boyce, Itgami, & Paffenbarger, 1983; Sallis, 1987). Research indicates that U.S. children are lacking in daily exercise, which has led to increases in body fat and reduced cardiovascular capabilities (Hinkle, 1992; Ross & Gilbert, 1985). Though there has been a concern among educators over youth fitness, this has not resulted in con- " comitant rises in fitness programming or curriculum (LeUnes & Nation, 1989). The importance of exercise for children is particularly salient. Research indicates that adult chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease have their beginnings in childhood (Haskell, et al., 1985). Children participating in exercise can reverse this trend and strengthen their health. This is an understanding not lost on children, as children from grades 3-12 believe physical activity results in beneficial physical outcomes (Watkins, 1992). Importance for School Counselors School counselors are in an unique position to promote positive exercise experiences by using physical activity in their counseling programs. Games and play are natural experiences for personal growth and positive learning and provide an opportunity to help children learn about themselves and others (Orlick, 1979). Yet positive games and play experiences are taken away early in many schools. This situation is captured by the observations of Paley (1992), "I am more aware of the voices of exclusion in the classroom. 'You can't play' suddenly seems too overbearing and harsh, resounding like a slap from wall to wall. How casually one child determines the fate of another. Certain children ... limit the social experiences of their classmates." (p. 1). There is an increasing need for counselors to provide effective health counseling for clients (Sperry, Carlson, & Lewis, 1993). Counselors do well when they break from traditional therapeutic rituals, habits, and routines and learn to encompass a spectrum of multimodal strategies such as games and exercise. Counselors experience less resistance to physical exercise interventions than to regular therapeutic procedures (Carlson & Ardell, 1981). Concrete procedures like games are easy to understand and children are more likely to accept them (Carlson & Ardell, 1981). School counselors can play an active role in promoting for children lifelong fitness, health, and enjoyment of sports and games (Hinkle, 1988). Improvements in health will affect other modes of functioning and help prevent future physical health problems. This work is truly preventive. …

School-based Interventions for Children of Divorce.

Abstract: Children of divorce experience a significant upset in their family system which can result in a number of adverse effects (Cantrell, 1986). Guidubaldi, Cleminshaw, Perry, and Mcloughlin (1983) report that children of divorce are at risk for problems in school. They found that children of divorce had more disruptive classroom behavior, were absent more, and had lower IQ scores than children from intact families. These children were also more likely to repeat a grade than children from intact homes. Likewise, Bisnaire, Firestone, and Rynard (1990) found that 30;0 of their sample had decreased academic performance following parental separation. The effects divorce can have on children are relevant to both the family and society. Dissemination of information regarding model, school-based interventions for children of divorce and their effectiveness on reducing adverse effects of divorce on children is essential. Many schools across the country are now offering some type of intervention for children of divorce. Past research has found that school-based interventions help counter the adverse effects of divorce (Pedro-Carroll, Alpert-Gillis, & Coven, 1992). In fact, Stolberg and Mahler (1994) found that even a schoolbased program that only offered emotional support for children of divorce produced a significant reduction in clinical symptomology. Another school-based study found that: "Children of divorce who perceived themselves as having more overall support had lower scores on measures of post-divorce difficulties, anxiety, and worry, and higher scores on measures of openness about the divorce and positive resources" (Coven, Pedro-Carroll, & Alpert-Gillis, 1990, p. 727). The implication from these studies is that emotional support in the school setting is effective in helping children of divorce cope with their situations. What are highly effective components of school-based interventions? Current interventions and studies use a variety of components. These include consideration of developmental stages, parent and teacher involvement, structured activities such as board games or drawings, and skill building (Hodges, 1986; Pedro-Carroll et al., 1992). This article examines some of the best interventions being used and their effectiveness. In addition, a delineation of the salient features common across models is offered. Effects of Divorce on Children There are many factors to be considered when assessing the effects of divorce on children. A few of these include age at time of divorce, gender, and time since the divorce occurred. Age of Child In the 6-year-old to 8-year-old age group, children's cognitive ability to understand the divorce is limited. Cantrell (1986 reports that children of these ages often have pervasive sadness and experience feelings of loss and anger following divorce. .An effect often shown around age 6 is aggression, anxiety, restlessness, separation problems, and tantrums Hodges, 1986). Younger school-age children are not only seen as sad, suffering from emotional pain, and fearful, but also they have feelings of guilt about the marital break up. Children this age often believe they are that cause of the break up (Freeman & Couchman, 1985; Sanders & fester, 1996). In addition, it is not uncommon for children in this developmental stage to think that their loyalties are divided (Cantrell, 1986; Hodges, 1986). Even when children are not actually pressured by parents, they can still feel pressure to choose (Cantrell, 1986). In 9 year olds to 12 year olds there is a change in the child's cognitive ability that affects his or her response to divorce. These children may experience loss, rejection, helplessness and fear, as do the younger children. It is often their intense anger, however, which distinguishes them from younger children (Cantrell, 1986. Their anger is not only intense but also typically directed at the parent they feel is responsible for the divorce Cantrell, 1986). …

Elementary School Guidance and Counseling: The Last 20 Years.

Abstract: In 1971, the number of elementary school counselors across the United States was slightly less than 8,000 (Myrick & Moni, 1976). Since that time, continuation of the Elementary & Secondary Schools Act (1965), passage of Public Law 94-142, and the focus on school accountability (fueled by the publication of A Nation at Risk in 1983 among other events) have influenced the growth of elementary counseling. In addition, societal changes and challenges have heightened awareness of the fact that students at all levels of education-pre-school through university-benefit from comprehensive counseling programs (Schmidt, 1996). Reflecting this need, 12 states mandated elementary counseling in the 1990-1991 academic year (Gibson, Mitchell, & Basile, 1993). Throughout this period of professional growth, the Elementary School Guidance and Counseling journal was a leading resource for practicing school counselors and counselor educators who taught in graduate preparation programs. ESGC Pelsma & Cesari, 1989; Wilson, 1986). Wilson (1986) performed an earlier review of ESG&C and although she did not examine specific topics, her study found a "slightly greater number of remedial articles in comparison to developmental articles" (p. 213). Pelsma and Cesari (1989) reviewed topics in 19 volumes of the Journal of Counseling and Development and concluded, "Although topics were fairly stable across the 19-year period, there does exist some potential trends and shifts in emphasis depending, at least in part, on the individual differences of the editors" (p. 278). The current review was designed, in part, to assess the topics and issues covered by ESG&C and compare them with national concerns and events that have influenced school counseling practice. Method The three authors of this article participated as reviewers of the past 20 volumes of ESG&C-12-31. A form was designed by the senior author to identify the work setting of first authors, the type of article being reviewed, the goal of the article, and any interventions advocated in each article. The form was pilot tested by the three reviewers using two issues of ASCA's The School Counselor, a journal similar to ESG&C. Results of the pilot study showed that the three reviewers had an average agreement rate of 80% and higher in categorizing articles according to author's work setting, type of article, goal of article, and primary interventions. Examination and discussion of the initial review form resulted in some changes in categories, and a second form was developed. Another pilot study with the revised form and using different issues of The School Counselor showed that the three reviewers achieved an average agreement rate of 84% and higher on all categories. The second form was used in this review. Review Form The review form first asked reviewers to assign the first author of each article to a work setting. …

Confidentiality and the Law.

Abstract: In an increasingly complex society, parents have concerns that personal information about their children in school records is accurate and that access is restricted to those individuals with a justifiable purpose for their use of that information. At the same time, teachers, counselors, and school administrators must be aware of the rights afforded students and their parents regarding school records. Hence, the notions of confidentiality in the schools and protection of student privacy have recently received much attention. The aim of this paper is to introduce readers to the laws that govern and protect students, teachers, and school counselors, and the issues surrounding confidentiality in the schools. The laws safeguarding the confidentiality of student information are established in four main congressional acts. * The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA, 1974), also known as the Buckley Amendment, is the major legislation that sets parameters on accessibility and disclosure of student records. * The Grassley Amendment (1994) to the Goals 2000: Educate America Act of 1994 details privacy of student participation in surveys, analysis, and evaluation. * Drug and alcohol treatment records of students kept by any institution receiving federal assistance are protected under Drug Abuse Office and Treatment Act (1976). * Records of students in special education are affected by the above laws plus the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 1997). These four acts provide a structure for laws concerning confidentiality and its application as a safeguard for students and professionals. These laws specify certain requirements and obligations of participating agencies, including local educational agencies (LEA), in the control and disbursement of records, and provide parents and students rights to access these records. The four acts will be discussed in the sections that follow along with their implications for school counselors. FERPA The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974, also known as the Buckley Amendment, is a four-part act that gives parents and students who have reached the age of majority the right to review and inspect school records. Part one of the Buckley Amendment states that school districts receiving federal funds must comply with FERPA or risk losing their funding. Part two states that schools must receive parental consent before evaluating or admitting students in school programs that would change their values or behavior. Part three addresses federal funding and denies such funds to schools that do not restrict unauthorized access to student information and protect the privacy of their records. Finally, part four protects children who are being used to gather data for federal surveys (FERPA, 1974). FERPA applies to all educational records that are defined as any personally identifiable record collected, maintained, or used by a school that the student has attended. Personal logs, treatment records, and directory information, however, are exceptions to the above act. The above mentioned are excluded for the following reasons: Personal logs are records of instructional, supervisory, administrative, and associated educational personnel that are the sole possession of the individual and have not been shared with any other peer or professional. Treatment records are records of a physician, psychiatrist, psychologist, or other recognized professional acting in his or her role as a professional and used only in connection with the treatment of the student. Directory information are records that include the student's demographic information, grade or field of study, participation in extracurricular activities, physical descriptions, and dates of attendance (FERPA, 1974; Underwood & Mead,1995). School records may not be released without the consent of the parents and written consent must be obtained for special education students. …

Name Calling and the Peer Beliefs of Elementary School Children.

Abstract: Bullying is a problem in elementary schools today, both in the United States and other countries (Hoover & Hailer, 1991) According to Ross (1996), Olweus (1978), who is the leading authority in the world on childhood bullying, first brought bullying as a problem in schools to the attention of the public in Sweden Other researchers have described bullying behavior among elementary school children in Japan (Prewitt, 1988), Australia (Rigby & Slee,1991), Ireland (O'Moore & Hillery, 1989), Canada (Charach, Pepler, & Ziegler, 1995), and Great Britain (Stephenson & Smith, 1989) As a universal experience, 15% to 20% of children will be victimized by bullies during their school years (Batsche & Knoff, 1994) Name calling, which is the "act of teasing or referring to a peer with a label that may create unpleasant or hurtful feelings" (Embry, 1995, p 8), appears to be the most common form of bullying among elementary school children (Sharp & Smith, 1994; Whitney & Smith, 1993) Shakeshaft et al (1995) reported that antagonistic behavior among children is usually expressed verbally, rather than-physically Name calling has been categorized as mild, moderate, and severe (Garrity, jens, Porter, Sager, & Short-Camilli,1996) Mild name calling includes mocking and taunting Moderate verbal abuse includes teasing about clothing, possessions, or appearance At the severe level are verbal threats of violence or threats to inflict bodily harm (Garrity et al, 1996) The experience of being bullied through name calling may differ depending on a child's age or grade level, although reports of studies examining name calling and grade level have had mixed results For example, Whitney and Smith (1993) found that middle school children reported name calling behavior at a rate twice that of secondary students Embry and Luzzo (1996) found that older children experienced more name calling than younger children Other researchers have reported that younger children report being called names by bullies more often than older children (Boulton, & Underwood, 1992; Charach et al, 1995; Olweus,1984; O'Moore & Hillery, 1989) Gender differences in name calling have also been found While some studies have found that boys and girls report being bullied in approximately equal numbers (Barone, 1995; Boulton, & Underwood, 1992, Charach et al, 1995), the type of bullying experienced by children appears to differ by gender Boys tend to be the victims of name calling accompanied by physical bullying whereas girls are bullied primarily through name calling (Besag, 1989; Siann, Callaghan, Glissov, Lockhart, & Rawson, 1994) Boys are more likely to be called names by both genders Girls tend to be called names by other girls (O'Moore, 1990; Whitney, Nabuzoka, & Smith,1992) Racial differences have also been found among victims of name calling Racial minority children appear to be called names more frequently than racial majority children (Akhtar & Stronach,1986; Kelly & Cohn, 1988; Siann et al 1994) African American and Asian children report being called names based on race more frequently than do children who are White (Kelly & Cohn, 1988) Charach et al (1995) found that name calling based on race is reported by almost half of students who have been bullied Name calling may substantially impact victims' selfesteem Olweus (1993) indicated that children who are victimized by bullies tend to be loners, are viewed by their teachers as being sad and under stress, and are nonassertive in the classroom Other researchers have found that victims of bullying are more apprehensive and have more negative perceptions of school than do children who are not bullied (Baker & Mednick, 1990; Blyth, Thiel, Bush, & Simmons, 1980; Roberts & Coursol, 1996) Hailer, Hoover, and Oliver (1992) found a decline in the grades of 90% of bullying victims they studied …

A Community/school Mentoring Program for Elementary Students

Abstract: Windermere Boulevard School is a growing suburban elementary school with children from diverse cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds. In an attempt to provide a comprehensive counseling program to meet the increasing enrollment and wide variety of students' needs, and to promote the benefits of counseling programs in this community, the school counselor collaborated with civic-minded community members to develop a mentoring program. The New York State Mentoring Program Training Manual (1991) defines mentoring as "a supportive one-to-one relationship between an adult and child, developed to facilitate the child's educational, social, and personal growth" (p.1). The mentor's function is one of being a supporter and active listener. The mentor is not there to lecture or criticize, but to be a facilitator or a coach. The mentor can be a source of encouragement. Overall, mentors are role models demonstrating to students that goals and dreams can be achieved. Mentors and mentees might discuss a variety of topics-exploring how things are going at school, relating school issues with home issues, discussing and validating the child's interests and strengths, problem solving an issue, or brainstorming future personal and career goals. Mentoring has frequently been used to assist students in school settings. Researchers indicate that students who are provided an opportunity to form a supportive relationship with a mentor achieve better grades, establish goals and aspirations, and enhance self-esteem (Green, 1993; Morgan, 1993; Nasrallah, 1992). Lee (1995) states that mentoring is a promising educational approach for students who need individual attention. Further, students who have mentors complete more years of education than do those who do not receive mentoring (Torrance, 1984). Current research appears to support the implementation of mentor programs as a successful approach to meet students' individual needs. The following mentoring program was developed to (a) foster a supportive relationship between a child and adult that would enhance self-confidence in the child; (b) expose participating students to experiences in which they might not otherwise have the opportunity to partake; (c) develop a partnership with community members who feel a personal investment with a child and in the child's future; (d) further the understanding of the community of the educational process and the rewards and challenges of educating children today; (e) promote school counseling programs by having influential members of the community serve as "ambassadors" for counseling programs as a result of this experience; and, (f) provide schools with another supportive program to reach the needs of a diverse population. Initiation The program began with a contact from the local Williamsville Rotary Club. Club members wished to interact with young people in some meaningful way. The counselor met with the appointed person from the Rotary and, with administrative support, began to formulate a plan to have Rotarians meet with students on school grounds. Mandatory orientation of mentors, mentees, and parents; administrative and teacher support; and adequate meeting space were all critical to the success of the initial stages of the program. It was important that all of the people involved understood their roles and the purpose of the program. Mentee Characteristics A letter was sent to teachers with an explanation of the program. As a pilot program, there was a limit to the number of students who could participate. Teachers were asked to recommend a boy or girl between the ages of 7 and 11 who might benefit from a one-to-one relationship with a positive adult, gain from a mentor's sharing life experiences, or need an extra boost of confidence. Parents of these students were contacted by both letter and phone and were asked to talk to their child about participating in the program. If the family agreed, a permission slip was signed and returned to the counselor. …

School Counselors' Roles in Cases of Child Sexual Behavior.

Abstract: It is a common but confusing situation when a young child behaves sexually in the classroom. Teachers and other school personnel face a dilemma. At certain stages of development, young children may masturbate, talk dirty, or explore the bodies of playmates. Yet some children's sexual behavior not only seems inappropriate, it suggests a more serious problem. Often parents and teachers call school counselors for help in such cases. Counselors serve as consultants because they have training and experience in child development, mental health, child-abuse indicators, and reporting procedures. However, the decision to report or not to report is a difficult one for well-trained professionals. Research clearly and consistently records the damaging emotional effects of untreated sexual abuse. The literature also indicates that sexual abuse has been prevalent in society despite a long history of cultural denial (Olafson, Corwin, & Summit, 1993). Yet, the number of devastating false accusations is increasing (Hechler, 1993). Some authors feel that the pendulum has swung from silence to hysteria (Second Presbyterian, 1991). In spite of the times, the professional school counselor needs to make wise interventions when children behave sexually. On one hand, the counselor wants to avoid hysteria and the trauma of false reports. On the other hand, the counselor has an ethical duty to recognize and report signs of abuse (American School Counselor Association, 1993). To handle such cases, the school counselor needs to be aware of developmental sexual behavior and symptoms of sexual abuse. The professional school counselor promotes healthy sexual development through the roles of consultation, counseling, and coordination. Prevention activities help prepare school personnel before these common situations occur. Developmental Sexual Behavior of Young Children As a consultant to teachers and parents, the elementary school counselor needs to be a specialist in child development. Information about developmental sexual behavior of children will assist parents and school personnel in handling particular situations in a calm and healthy manner. Unfortunately, research and knowledge about young children's developmental sexual behavior are limited. Several things are known. Children's sexual behavior-including curiosity, interest, and experimentation-is progressive over time (Gil & Johnson, 1993). Child development is influenced by culture and family, life experiences, and organic capacities. Sexual behavior is typical in young children. Sexual development coincides with physical, emotional, psychological, cognitive, and moral development (Gil & Johnson, 1993). Preschool Sexual Behavior It is common for preschoolers to be curious about private parts. Genital and bodily exploration is almost universal at this age. Mild masturbation is common. However, self-exploration and self-stimulation are random and sporadic. Some children fondle the genitals of playmates or become involved in undressing games. They show interest in showing and viewing body parts (Gil & Johnson, 1993). Because of their naivete, preschoolers are more likely than older children to be caught by adults (Shaffer, 1996; Sigelman & Shaffer, 1995). This type of sexual play does not suggest abuse because it occurs among equals, similar in development and sexual curiosity (Second Presbyterian, 1991). Preschoolers ask many questions and want to know from where babies come. They like to play marriage, house, and doctor. They may cuddle, kiss, touch, and tickle. Adults are often surprised at how thoroughly children imitate what they have seen. However, it is unlikely for children to play beyond what they have experienced. When playing doctor, children may poke various body parts and ask about pain. However, it would be uncommon for a preschool child to imitate a pelvic exam (Gil & Johnson, 1993). Preschoolers delight in using slang words for body parts and bathroom matters (Gil & Johnson, 1993). …

Children's Dreams during the Grief Process

Abstract: Childhood grief is an area of research that has received little attention in the professional literature (Davids, 1993; Rosen, 1991; Sedney, Baker, & Gross, 1994). Children experience grief as a reaction to death of parents, siblings, close family members, and friends. Frequently, symptoms of grief that are expressed by children are unobserved, misunderstood, or denied. Grief is actually one of three components of the bereavement process (Corless, Germino, & Pittman, 1995). The three components include loss, grief, and recovery. Loss refers to the actual separation from a part of one's life where an emotional attachment existed. Grief includes the complex interaction of emotional, cognitive, and perceptual reactions accompanying loss. Recovery is the final component in dealing with the loss of a loved one. There exist conflicting views on whether children do, in fact, grieve. Rosen (1991) reports that, due to limitations of research into childhood bereavement, questions remain among professionals as to whether children can mourn. As stated by Buirski and Buirski (1994, p. 340), "Whether children have the ego capacity to undergo a successful mourning process has been ... controversial." However, Buirski and Buirski state that most professionals now support the notion of childhood mourning when the environment allows and supports the grieving process. Therapeutic considerations in working with grieving children include mobilizing the expression of children's feelings (Corless et al., 1995; Horovitz-Darby, 1994; Klagsbrun et al., 1989; Kubler-Ross, 1975, 1981; Schuchter, & Zisook, 1988). Kubler-Ross (1975) states that feelings related to loss must be expressed before one can begin to heal. The use of creative arts in working with grieving children to facilitate the expression of feelings is supported (De Steiner, 1993; Eismann & Purcell, 1992; Gardner, 1971; Gilliland & James, 1988; Schaefer, 1988; Sedney et al., 1994). Creative forms that are described include storytelling, art, music, play, and dream work. Children's dreams, like grief, are an area of limited research in the professional literature. Varying theories and approaches in working with children and dreams are presented by theorists (De Steiner, 1993; Eckstein, 1981; Foulkes, Hollifield, Bradley, Terry, & Sullivan, 1991; Gabel, 1993; Hallock-Bannigan, 1993; Spiegel, 1994; Woolley, 1995). The present study asks the question: Do grieving children recall dreams more frequently than nongrieving children? Although it is documented in the literature that grieving children typically experience nightmares (Healy-- Romanello, 1993; Kubler-Ross, 1975; Leung & Robson, 1993), a controlled approach to assessing dream recall in children has not been documented. Increased dream recall is an important consideration if one supports the idea that dream work is therapeutic. The therapeutic success of dream work with children has been documented (Altschul, 1988; Eismann & Purcell,1992; Sluckin, Weller, & Highton,1989; Webb, 1992; Winnicott, 1989). In considering the assumption that dreaming in and of itself is therapeutic (Eckstein, 1981; Freud, 1950; Hallock-Bannigan, 1993), one might speculate that increased dream recall is associated with a subconscious effort to heal oneself. If it is determined that grieving children do, in fact, recall more dreams, it might be assumed that the grieving child is using dreams as a catalyst to the grieving process. This assumption, however, is not part of the present study and should be considered for further research. If children tend to recall more dreams during the grief process, one might conclude that dreaming has particular significance for the grieving child. The present study attempted to answer the question of whether grieving children tend to recall dreaming more frequently than nongrieving children. Method Participants were selected from the fourth and fifth grades, a total of 272 students, of a large suburban elementary school. …

A modified time-out procedure for children with noncompliant or defiant behaviors.

Abstract: Time-out (TO) is a behavior modification technique effective in reducing a wide variety of undesirable child behaviors including disobedience, aggression, and inappropriate social behaviors (Harris, 1985; Norton, Austen, Allen, & Hilton, 1983; Sowa, McIntyre, May, & Bland, 1994). TO has been defined as "a period of time in a less reinforcing environment made contingent on a behavior" (Brantner & Doherty, 1983, p. 87). TO usually involves placing a child in the corner of a room (Adams & Kelly, 1992) or isolated place (Allison & Allison, 1971). Isolation TO (Allison & Allison, 1971; Gast & Nelson, 1977; Justen & Howerton, 1993) was a very restrictive, exclusionary method of behavior control that removed the child from the room in which the rule infraction occurred and required the child to serve time alone in a room, usually either a bedroom or, in an educational setting, an isolation chamber. In the case of bedrooms, effectiveness was often hindered because the child found enjoyable play activities to engage in while serving the TO, hardly a punishment. On the other hand, isolation chambers utilized by some schools, usually with students displaying dangerous behaviors, led to charges of cruelty, possibility of abuse, and legal and ethical concerns (Harris, 1985). Because of these concerns and the possibility of misuse, isolation TO is rarely used today except in extreme situations and usually in institutional settings. Unfortunately, educational professionals and parents often associate these valid criticisms of isolation TO with the more commonly used and much less controversial exclusion TO. Exclusion TO involves placing the child in a corner away from interesting activities, unreinforced by social interactions (Harris, 1985; Hobbs, Walle, & Caldwell, 1984; Miltenberger, Parrish, Rickert, & Kohr, 1989). Children are usually excluded for a maximum of 5 minutes (Adams & Kelley, 1992). It is with this method of TO that most professional discussions and this paper are concerned. Many recommendations for modifications have been offered over the past 20 years. Some have enhanced the effectiveness of the basic procedure, others have been abandoned for lack of support. For example, approaches that stressed guided compliance and increased adult interaction appeared no more or even less effective than approaches espousing minimal verbal interaction (Handen, Parrish, McClung, Kerwin, & Evans, 1992; Harris, 1985; Hobbs & Forehand, 1977). In addition, while studies have varied the duration of TO from 2 tol5 minutes (Hobbs et al., 1984; Norton et al., 1983; Miltenberger et al., 1989), Pendergrass (1971) found that durations of 5 minutes and 20 minutes were equally effective. A particularly interesting modification known as contingent delay TO involves extending the TO for a specific period of time each time a child displays a defiant behavior while sitting in the TO chair. Research regarding the increased effectiveness of contingent delay procedures over standard TO has to this point remained inconclusive (Mace, Page, Ivanicic, & O'Brien, 1986), although Hobbs and Forehand (1975) found contingent delay to be superior in reducing aberrant behavior and noncompliance. Mace et al. (1986) reported that because both procedures virtually eliminated display of noncompliance, superiority of contingent delay or regular TO procedures could not be demonstrated. Because elementary school counselors are regularly engaged in consultation/collaboration with parents and teachers to reduce noncompliant or defiant behaviors, counselors must continually bolster their repertoire of effective intervention strategies. When utilizing TO procedures, several important caveats must be highlighted. Because TO is a punishment, its purpose is to suppress the display of inappropriate behavior. TO does not teach appropriate behavior. Thus, TO should be used in conjunction with positive reinforcement or other instructional/educational techniques (Charlop, Burgio, Iwata, & Ivanicic, 1988; Harris, 1985). …

Perspectives on Voice and Sense of Self among Young Adolescents.

Abstract: In adolescent-development literature, a number of studies have examined identity development or what Blasi and Milton (1988) term a "sense of self." One approach to adolescent development is based on Erikson's (1968) widely accepted eight-stage theory. Using this framework, Archer (1982, 1989), Adams and Fitch (1982), Grotevant and Thorbecke (1982), Marcia (1980), and Streitmatter (1993) found that adolescent girls and boys proceed through identity development (Erikson's fifth stage) in a similar fashion. In other words, there are no significant differences between girls and boys in their research studies. Other authors such as Brown (1991), Brown and Gilligan (1992), Gilligan (1979, 1982), Lyons (1990), Miller (1976), and Stern (1990) have challenged Erikson's theory of identity development with respect to gender. Their contention is that Erikson's developmental concepts are male-oriented and emphasize the resolution of traditionally masculine socialization issues such as autonomy, separateness, independence, and fairness. They argue that there are important differences in female development; mainly that emphasis is placed on connection and caring in the development of relationships with others. These researchers claim that boys and girls have a different experience in the development of sense of self. Identity achievement for boys generally involves separation and independence, whereas, for girls, it involves the development of relationships with others and interdependence. Some researchers have suggested that early adolescence (ages 12 to 13) represents a major developmental transition for females in terms of psychological selfstructure, gender-role identity, and body image. Reviewing the literature on early adolescence, Stern (1990) reported that girls lose significant psychological ground during adolescence. She cited several studies that indicate that girls are more depressed, have poorer emotional well-being, and exhibit more negative self-appraisal. Stern stated that "there are strong indications that disavowing the self will be sustained into adulthood" (p. 114). In terms of body image, Offer, Ostrov, Howard, and Atkinson (1991) reported lower ratings among adolescent girls as a particularly striking gender difference across the ten countries and the total age span investigated in their study Compared to boys, adolescent girls rated themselves as having a more negative body image, lower global self-esteem, a higher degree of social awareness, and higher commitment to others. This study is supported by the recent research findings of Usmiani and Daniluk (1997), who investigated the relationship between self-esteem, gender-role identity, and body image with two groups of mothers and their adolescent daughters. Higher self-esteem was found to make a significant contribution to the body image scores of both groups of mothers and their daughters in this study. Researchers investigating other adolescent characteristics in relation to gender have reported both similarities and differences. Using Harter's Self Perception Profile for Adolescents (SPPA), Hagborg (1993) found some gender differences in self-concept ratings. Boys rated themselves higher on athletic competence and physical appearance; girls rated themselves higher on close friendships. A third important contributor to selfconcept for girls was social acceptance. However, both girls and boys rated themselves as being similar in terms of school competence and personal appearance. Thus, there are conflicting findings within the research on adolescent identity development with regard to gender. Streitmatter (1993) suggested that one explanation for the inconsistency can be found in the differing methodological approaches and assessment measures used. Research studies utilizing quantitative approaches, by comparing scores on standardized measures (Archer,1982, 1989; Grotevant & Thorbecke, 1982; Hagborg, 1993; Marcia, 1980), have generally found great similarities among adolescent girls and boys and few differences. …

Comprehensive Evaluation of a K-12 Counseling Program.

Abstract: To improve, counseling and guidance programs must be evaluated and areas of concern determined. Cheramie and Sutter (1993) report that in the schools, a minimal amount of time is spent on research, training, and program evaluation. There are ways to effectively evaluate counseling and guidance programs, despite arguments that the outcomes of counseling and guidance programs cannot be measured accurately (Lewis, 1983). Good evaluation of such programs includes informal means such as subjective evaluations and formal means, which use different instruments (Wiggins & Moody, 1987). One of the most effective ways to evaluate a program is to survey those who directly receive the services-the students (Wiggins & Moody, 1987). Wasielewski, Scruggs, and Scott (1997) evaluated a program called Teachers as Counselors (TAC) where trained teachers led groups for students who were referred for various reasons. Student participants were given an evaluation to complete that measured student satisfaction with the program, along with an instrument to measure life events and associated stress (Wasielewski et al., 1997). Students were pleased with their experience in TAC as 78% of students expressed the desire to participate in TAC again (Wasielewski et al., 1997). McLaughlin et al. (1993) examined a similar program called TAF (Teachers as Facilitators), in which trained teachers conducted small groups and students reported positive benefits. Lavoritano and Segal (1992) explained that the counseling staff that they studied felt that they were not able to make a difference in their students, but the program evaluation revealed to staff members that they could have a positive effect on students. Lavoritano and Segal (1992) also found that students referred for counseling and students in a nonreferred control group were significantly different. More males were referred than females, which confirms the findings of previous research (Lavoritano & Segal,1992). Wiggins and Moody (1987) reported that the counselors rated as most effective were those who spent more time in direct contact with students in individual and group counseling. The Spring Independent School District of Houston, TX, evaluated its counseling program and surveyed stakeholders of the program via surveys and focus groups. Stakeholders refer to those who have a particular interest in the counseling programparents, staff members, and students. The purpose of the study was to assess the level of awareness of the various aspects of the district counseling program, to find out which parts of the program were working well, and to determine the areas that need improvement. Method Elementary students, secondary students, and parents were selected through a random sampling. Respondents included 746 staff members (which encompassed teachers, counselors, and school administrators), 232 elementary students, 434 secondary students, and 140 parents. Students completed the surveys during the school day at their home campus. The student response rate was close to 100% since every student participated unless absent on the day of survey administration. The surveys were sent to 750 parents selected through random sampling. The parent response rate was 19%. The survey was sent to all 1,449 staff members. The response rate for staff members was 52%. The breakdown of respondents by gender was 51% male and 49% female for elementary students and 48% male and 52% female for secondary students. The breakdown of respondents by grade for elementary students was 31% third grade, 34% fourth grade, and 34% fifth grade. The breakdown of respondents by grade for secondary students was 16% sixth grade, 15% seventh grade, 14% eighth grade, 16% ninth grade, 16% tenth grade, 14% eleventh grade, and 9% twelfth grade. The ethnic breakdown of the school district was 56% White, 20% African American, 18% Hispanic, 6% Asian/Pacific Islander, and less than 1% Native American. Measure The survey consisted of a form for each of the four different groups of participants. …

Applications of Adlerian Principles in School Settings.

Abstract: As counselors approach the 21st Century, they must learn and use applications in the school that assist in meeting student needs and developing student potential. Adlerian principles have served as a basis for working in schools since Alfred Adler first introduced them in the early 1900s, and they still have useful applications today. This article explores some applications of Adlerian principles that counselors can use or adapt in their work with students and teachers in the classroom. Overview Adler was the first theorist to emphasize the fundamental social nature of people. According to Adler (1927, 1930,1931/1980), people are inherently motivated to engage in social activities, relate to other people, and acquire a style of life that is fundamentally social in nature. Each person is born with the capacity to develop his or her social interest. Social interest is a person's ability to interact in a cooperative way with people that leads to a healthy society. In this way people develop a sense of belonging and tend to contribute to others in the society. While a person is born with social interest, it must be nurtured and developed along the way. How an individual engages and develops this social interest shapes his or her personality. The school then, becomes a primary setting. Counselors and teachers take on the roles of assisting children to acquire and develop a healthy social interest. Based on Adlerian principles, this includes helping children to belong, feel valued, develop positive self-worth, and not feel discouraged. Personality is also shaped by the choices people make to satisfy their needs. These needs effect a person's behavior because, according to Adlerian principles, all behavior is purposive and goal-directed (Thompson & Rudolph, 1996). Therefore, people act in ways that meet their needs and develop their perception of social interest. Adler's Model of Humanity Before elaborating on effective democratic methods and the implications involved, it is necessary to understand Alfred Adler's model of humanity (Adler, 1931/1980; Dreikurs Grunwald, & Pepper, 1982). Each educator's approach to the educational process is based on a concept of human nature. As theorized by Adler and applied by Dreikurs, all behavior is viewed as goaldirected. Some key concepts are defined and summarized as follows: 1. Human beings are social beings and have an insatiable goal to belong, to find a place in society. Children's behavior is a sign of the ways and means by which they strive to be important, although they themselves may be unaware of the purpose of their behavior. 2. Children's choices and actions taken may be based on faulty assumptions about themselves and life. Their behavior may appear inappropriate as they attempt to find significance. 3. Behavior is purposeful. Recommended methods for dealing with children's behavior make sense only if we can understand and/or recognize the purpose of that behavior. Viewing a child through labels such as hyperactive, learning disabled, or mentally retarded is of no use in helping discover more feasible alternatives. 4. Human beings are biased in their perceptions of the world and will follow what may be called private logic or unique reasoning, which determines the course of action one takes. 5. Children are sensitive to the social atmosphere they are engaged in and will perform early experiments with it, seeking what they want. Through this process of experimentation and growth, they integrate early experiences and develop goals accordingly (Dreikurs et al., 1982). 6. By the age of five, a child's lifestyle is formed and he or she has drawn general conclusions about the "best way to face the situations/problems that life has to offer." (Thompson & Rudolph, 1988, p. 196). 7. Children strive for superiority in order to overcompensate for feelings of inferiority. By observation, trial, and error, children overcompensate and in doing so, draw their own conclusions about their life and where they fit in. …