Showing papers in "Saber and Scroll in 2013"

Napoleon: Apex of the Military Revolution

Abstract: Without a doubt, Napoleon was a great general. Even his enemies thought so; the Duke of Wellington once famously remarked that Napoleon’s presence on the battlefield was worth an extra forty -thousand men.1 However, his prominence was not limited to the military arena. He revised the legal, tax, education systems and civil administration of France and several other European nations. In short, Napoleon was the colossus that stood astride his times.2 However, some have suggested that while he was great field commander, Napoleon was no great innovator in military affairs, neither tactically, strategically nor technically.3 Rather, he was the mere beneficiary of the innovations of others.4 This article will discuss “The Military Revolution” in Western Europe and will analyze how Napoleon became the apotheosis of this “Revolution” by creating, managing and organizing the most devastating and successful army to that point in history. Napoleon and Le Grande Armee became the models for all other generals and armies for the next two hundred years and capped the Military Revolution.

Men and Women as Represented in Medieval Literature and Society

Abstract: the problem is one of cultural imposition and anachronism... the heroic code demands that its adherents live up to its ideals or perish striving. Chivalry established a rule-based method of living that, when adhered to, regulates the body in a way that is beneficial to the smoother functioning of the social body; this fiction is disseminated through the gesta of the hero. 1 Men and women in medieval epic literature are portrayed in a way that is contrary to the modern day ideals of male/female stereotypes. There are few examples of gender equality in medieval literature, or for that fact in medieval historical records. In the traditional epic, the ‘classical’ hero is masculine, violent, and aggressive; men exuded heroic knightly personalities while the classical females are portrayed as vessels of chastity, purity, and goodness. During the period of the Middle Ages and in its literature there are highly idealized views on manners, society, and morality. Contrary to popular stereotypes and Victorian romance novels, women in the Medieval period were not all damsels in distress waiting for the knight to come save them. Nor for that fact were all men of the era heroic saints on white chargers. Historian Jeffrey Cohen states:

Eleanor of Aquitaine: Not Your Average Medieval Woman

Abstract: Eleanor of Aquitaine is one of the most well-known English queens of the Middle Ages. She has been portrayed as a character in movies and there are many books about her life. She was both a queen of France and of England where she was much more involved than were other medieval queens. Eleanor ruled her own lands without her husband and ruled in her son’s place while he was on Crusade. She was not a typical medieval woman, even when compared to other medieval noblewomen and queens. There are differing views on women during the Middle Ages, but it is generally agreed that their life was not easy. Women were perceived in different ways, depending on the circumstances. In his English Life in the Middle Ages, historian L.F. Salzman states “woman is at one moment idealized as a divine being, to gain whose love the world may well be lost, at the next she is figured as a worthless and venomous creature, hardly worthy to have a human soul.” 1 The poems of the troubadours frequently portrayed the first kind of woman and the second was often denounced from the pulpits of medieval churches. “The worst slanderers of the female sex were clergy... The common people heard women continually abused from the pulpit.” 2

Even if the World Had Paid Attention, Nothing Would Have Changed: If the Armenian Genocide Had Not Been Forgotten

Abstract: The Armenian Genocide is referred to as both “The Forgotten Genocide,” 1 and “The Forgotten Holocaust” 2 in part due to the almost overwhelming attention paid to the Jewish Holocaust (hereafter referred to as the Holocaust) and what appears to be overwhelming ignorance of the Armenian Genocide. Adolf Hitler remarked “Who still talks nowadays of the extermination of the Armenians” implying that he could commit genocide with impunity. 3 It has been postulated that had proper attention been paid, the same as has been paid to the Holocaust for almost seventy years, the lessons learned from the Armenian Genocide would have prevented the occurrence of the Holocaust. Indeed, speaking at an event to commemorate the anniversary of the Armenian Genocide in 2011, United States (U.S.) Senator Chuck Schumer stated that if intervention had occurred to halt the Armenian Genocide, “the Holocaust may not have occurred.” 4 U.S. Congressman Joseph Knollenberg stated, “If the international community had spoken out against this merciless slaughtering of the Armenian people instead of ignoring it, the horrors of the Holocaust might never have taken place.” 5 Commenting on the beginning of the Nazi campaign against the Jews, Herbert Hirsch, a noted genocide scholar at Virginia Commonwealth University, opined that just eighteen years earlier, the Armenian Genocide occurred and had little attention drawn to it. 6 Finally, Cenap Cakmak, head of the department of international relations at Eskişehir Osmangazi University, reluctantly stated that elementary legal texts indicate that “the failure of the international community to deal with it (the Armenian Genocide) resulted in commission of similar subsequent campaigns.” 7

Operation AJAX: Roots of a Tree Grown in Distrust

Abstract: President Truman made the above statement during his famous speech in which he sought congressional approval to increase aid to Greece and Turkey, two countries whose economies were on the brink of failure. The collective fear was that their governments would turn to communism as an economic fix for continued survival. Truman’s speech quickly formed the basis of U.S. policy towards communism and political entities that threatened democracy.1 Even though this laid the groundwork of the U.S.’s public international policy, a far different and ironic action emerged. Just a few short years later President Eisenhower authorized the CIA, in conjunction with Britain’s MI6, to carry out Operation AJAX.2 At the heart of the operation’s targets sat an elected Iranian prime minister, newfound Iranian national pride, a power-hungry shah, and a plot to overthrow a fledgling democracy. Overall, the operation was considered a success with regard to its objectives, but when compared to U.S. policy and interests, it was a horrible failure and arguably the focal point of almost a half-century of soured Iranian-U.S. relations.

The Council House Fight Sounded the Death Knell to the Comancheria

Abstract: The Council House Fight was one of the lesser battles between the settlers and the Comanche, but it was significant in its long term impact. The new American settlers and the Comanche came together at the Council House in San Antonio, Texas, on March 19, 1840, to negotiate a peace treaty and settle the boundaries of the Comancheria. However, the meeting went horribly wrong, and neither the Indians nor the settlers were without culpability. Neither was willing to give up land for peace; the settlers wanted the land for farming, and the Comanche wanted their traditional hunting grounds. Expecting a celebration, the Comanche brought their wives and children. The settlers brought the Republic of Texas army because they did not. In the end, the Comanche could not fight the combined efforts of the Texas Rangers, the United States Army, and the diseases that the Europeans and settlers from the east brought with them. The dream of the Comancheria died. The Council House building no longer exists. Only a marker off Market Street shows where it used to stand. 1 The Council House fight took place long after the Comanche had made themselves known to all of the settlers of Texas. There could never have been a lasting peace between the Comanche and the settlers, in part because the settlers did not understand the culture of the Comanche. The Comanche were made of many different independent divisions, bands and families. 2 In Comanche culture, one did not mention the name of the deceased person; therefore, the name of different Comanche groups evolved in a way that it made it nearly impossible to follow the many different bands of the Comanche history. 3 Peace treaties failed because of the unique nature of the Comanche organization. Each tribal division or band had two chiefs, a peace chief and a war chief. The positions were not hereditary and band members chose who would lead. Leadership positions often passed within the same powerful families, but the chiefs only maintained their authority as long as they had the confidence of the band. Their societal structure allowed individuals to cross not only between bands but between divisions as well. When one band of the Comanche signed a peace treaty, no other band was bound to its promises. The officials—Spanish, Mexican and American— never understood the different cultural practices of the Comanche organization. 4

Historiography of Falkirk (1298) as the Predecessor to Infantry Dominance

Abstract: For more than a century, historians have identified the Battle of Falkirk (1298) as a turning point in infantry tactics, not only for the Scots but also for warfare in the Western World. In his seminal work on military history, Hans Delbrück (1848-1929) wrote that Falkirk was unique, concluding “nowhere else in the Middle Ages do we find such great masses of foot soldiers who do not immediately break ranks when attacked by knights.” 1 Delbrück was referring to the spearmen organized by Scottish Guardian William Wallace (d. 1305) in a battle that he lost against English King Edward I (r. 1272-1307). Delbrück is not alone in his assertion that Falkirk initiated, or at least preceded some revolutionary method for using foot soldiers, as the claim persists in numerous modern works. Remarkably, there was nothing new about the Scots’ tactics, but Falkirk remains popular in modern memory, predominately due to high profile participants such as Wallace and Edward, the former a national hero, as well as a dense library of contemporary and modern histories. In an attempt to neatly categorize transitions and trends in warfare, historians have erroneously identified Falkirk as the beginning of an era where infantry alone won battles, or at least stood up to cavalry, but in reality such infantry-centric achievements were occurring more than a century prior in the Western World.

Manipulating Images of the North: Union Public Diplomacy in Europe

Abstract: As Union agents moved in European circles during the Civil War, they understood that shaping the opinion of the foreign public could aid diplomacy and further the Union cause. They pursued campaigns to influence that opinion by engaging in forms of public diplomacy directed at keeping Europe from recognizing the Confederacy. It was rudimentary by today’s public diplomacy standards but it met all the essential elements of public diplomacy. It presented, in the words of public diplomacy, “a manipulated image of the state,” and thereby influenced European policies on the war from within by shaping the impressions, desires and values of the British and French public and establishing a mutuality of goals. 1 It is difficult to measure the impact of public diplomacy, more so in the Civil War era than today. Public diplomacy is seldom decisive in foreign relations. This is the case with the public diplomacy exercised by the Union in the Civil War. Great Britain and France never recognized the Confederate States of America--a feat in part because of the Union’s public diplomacy efforts. Diplomacy practiced during the American Civil War largely dealt with two sides of the same coin—recognition or non-recognition of the independent sovereignty of the Confederate States of America by the European countries. 2 Both sides understood that formal recognition of the Confederacy would greatly benefit their war effort and be the tipping point in gaining independence, much as French recognition of the United States in the American Revolution was seen as the turning point in that conflict. If any of the European countries recognized and supported the Confederacy, this would also mean more supplies and provisions for the ailing Southern effort. In terms of traditional diplomacy, both the Confederacy and the Union had their shortcomings. The Confederates, to their detriment, relied on King Cotton diplomacy. Foremost among the blunders of King Cotton diplomacy was an embargo on cotton exports designed to starve Europe of the commodity and force it to recognize the South to re-open the trade. On other issues, the South was careful to portray its cause as one against Northern oppression and to paint itself as already having all the attributes of a sovereign nation capable of standing on its own. It also made every effort to sidestep or minimize the issue of slavery and its relation to its bid for independence. 3

Sisterhood of Courage: African American Women and Their Efforts to Aid Union Forces in the Civil War

Abstract: Volume II Issue III Summer 2013 37 Few, if any, will argue the significance of the Civil War in America’s timeline. The compendium of literature on the topic is vast. At the heart of any war lie people, whether they are generals or privates, military or civilian, male or female. While the military efforts of African American men, both slave and free, have received moderate attention, those of African American women during this era remain relatively unexplored. Being both black and female provided them unique opportunities to aid Union forces – some bold and glorious, others meek and humble, all of them worthy of recognition and gratitude. Their lives, their contributions, and their trials, tribulations, and triumphs are an important component of the war years. Without their stories being added to the anthology of Civil War research, the annals are incomplete. In understanding the efforts of African American women to aid federal forces, it is important to examine the wide network shared by these women. This uncommon sisterhood, shared by African American women in the North and South, grew from the shared bond of a single struggle: to gain and enjoy the freedoms of United States citizens. In this undertaking they often endured persecution, racial hatred, and injustice. In the South, time spent shared among slave women during the labor of their “second shift” tasks of cooking, mending, and tending garden plots provided an opportunity to visit with one another. Saturdays were a common day to gather while doing the family washing. Spinning and weaving the evening quota of cloth for the slaveholder was often done in the company of others. These communal moments were times when close bonds were formed, as well as allowing for the exchange of gossip, stories, and medical advice. 1 In addition to mutual labors, southern slave women engaged in the “domestic slave economy.” This economy provided an exchange network in which goods (typically “liberated” from the slaveholder’s larder) were traded, sold, and bartered with other slaves and poor whites. 2 The bonds of “sisterhood” shared among these women and the networks they developed would serve them well during the years of the Civil War. Much needed food, information, aid, and medicine were obtained and passed along the channels of this complex network, often at great risk to themselves. In the North, churches served as the epicenter of black communities. The efforts of African American women in the support of their churches figured prominently. They often formed women’s auxiliary groups, such as the Daughters of Convention of the Second Baptist Sisterhood of Courage: African American Women and Their Efforts to Aid Union Forces in the Civil War

The Legacy of J. B. Bury, ‘Progressive’ Historian of Ancient Greece

Abstract: J. B. Bury was an amazing personality among Greek historians. He held many prestigious positions, and was the Regius Professor of Modern History at Cambridge when the book The Ancient Greek Historians was compiled from his Lane Lectures at Harvard. H. D. F Kitto referred to him as “a determined rationalist,” 1 and the Lane Lectures on ancient Greek historiography proves this point well. Very few historians have such a grasp on the nuances of Greek, or are so wellread. Very few English writers, historians or otherwise, have such a grasp of the English language as to write as captivatingly as Bury. Because of this, The Ancient Greek Historians proves itself to be a wonderful, insightful, and lucrative read for any person, academic or amateur, interested in the progress of Greek historiography. The book consists of eight lectures, and because of this original format it seems that much of his information is truncated. On the other hand, the Greek is well-translated; this is an aspect of this book which is very different from Bury’s other works as he has a tendency to assume that the reader is already fluent in Greek. However, because the work was originally spoken, the truncation of his points and assertions is completely understandable, and it must be said that the points he makes are nonetheless insightful, and due to the opulent footnotes, perhaps fuller than when originally presented at Harvard. Bury, at the very beginning of his work, states, “As a Hellenist, I shall be happy if I succeed in illustrating the fact that, as in poetry and letters generally, as in art, as in philosophy, and in mathematics, so too in history, our debt to the Greeks transcends calculation.” 2

Mining Picks and Baseball Bats: The Unique Sports Culture of Butte, MT

Abstract: In industrial cities, it is inevitable that the population will be made up of the working class – that is, young single men and women; a group which is known for restless attitudes and competitive behavior. The dangers inherent in the work and the proximity of the residential areas to each other tend to create a stress within the society. To help alleviate stress and to act as a “pressure valve,” groups create formal, organized competition – games. These activities tend to unify social and racial groups and create a group association and competition in a socially healthy way. This “blowing off of steam” substitutes for unhealthy competition and helps avoid damage to the group as a whole. From an economic point of view, the industry associated with the city benefits by encouraging healthy social competition. If stress is relieved in the working group, it helps ensure that productivity, and therefore, profit, are maximized. Butte, Montana, is an example of such a city that understands the benefit of athletic competition to a society. The history of the mining camp that became one of the most influential cities during the electrical industrial revolution is rich with stories of athletic competition. These athletic competitions and the subsequent rallying of fans behind competing teams helped to create a unique culture in the city. Sports and games predate modern industrial American cities. Nor are they unique to “civilized people.” European explorers and colonists encountered Native Americans who played games and sports for pure amusement as well as ceremonial reasons. European colonists brought their own gaming tradition and what historians Elliot J. Gorn and Warren J. Goldstein describe as recreational ideologies to the new world. Leisure and sport were seen by the English as rewards for hard work and a job well done. Games and sports were ingrained in the British tradition at all class levels. 1