Showing papers in "South Asian Studies in 2000"

The Far East, Southeast and South Asia: Indo-Pacific Beads from Yayoi Tombs as Indicators of Early Maritime Exchange

Abstract: (2000). The Far East, Southeast and South Asia: Indo-Pacific Beads from Yayoi Tombs as Indicators of Early Maritime Exchange. South Asian Studies: Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 73-88.

Royal Portrait Sculpture in the South Indian Temple

Abstract: (2000). Royal Portrait Sculpture in the South Indian Temple. South Asian Studies: Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 11-36.

The Karao Jāmi' Mosque of Diu in the Light of the History of the Island

Abstract: In the ex-Portuguese colony of Diu there stands an impressive old mosque. Its interest is more than architectural, as its very survival under the Portuguese may throw light on some aspects of the history of the Portuguese in India and their relationship with the Muslims of the region, particularly with regard to the infamous practice of burning the mosques of many South Indian ports. Diu a small island situated at the southernmost point of Surashtra was the last of the Portuguese strongholds in India, control of which was achieved after many years of futile struggle and frustrating negotiations with the sultanate of Gujarat. In the 15th century Diu was a sizeable trading port, but far from the capital Ahmadabad and other populous towns of Gujarat. It was also located between two major ports: Mangrol to the west and the historic Khanba-yat (Cambay) to the East. Cambay in particular was the main port of the region at least from the 10th century (Htiditd al-'alam 1962, p. 61; Istakhri 1961, Ar. p. 102; 1969, Pers. p. 151; Buzurg b. Shahriyar 1883-86, p. 123). It was close to the capital Ahmadabad, and also known for its excellent harbour on the calm and secure waters of the Gulf of Cambay. Diu, however, had certain advantages over Cambay: it was on the direct route to Malabar and Ma'bar, and ships sailing south could anchor at Diu without diverting from their preferred route. Diu also had a significant strategic position, as a small fleet based there could control the entire maritime traffic through this Gulf. It is not, therefore, surprising that from their earliest days in India the Portuguese were eager to take over Diu. Ludovico di Varthema, who visited Diu in 1503 or 1504, and Barbosa in c. 1515, give vivid descriptions of Diu, its administration and trade before it fell into the hands of the Portuguese. Varthema (1863, pp. 91-2) records:

Investigations into the Iron Age Early Historic Cultures Of The Upper Gundar Basin, Madurai District, Tamil Nadu, India

Abstract: (2000) Investigations into the Iron Age Early Historic Cultures Of The Upper Gundar Basin, Madurai District, Tamil Nadu, India South Asian Studies: Vol 16, No 1, pp 119-132

A Comparison of Kalasha and Kho Subsistence Patterns in Chitral, NWFP, Pakistan

Abstract: (2000). A Comparison of Kalasha and Kho Subsistence Patterns in Chitral, NWFP, Pakistan. South Asian Studies: Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 133-142.

Two Fifth-Century Bodhisattvas from Afghanistan

Abstract: (2000). Two Fifth-Century Bodhisattvas from Afghanistan. South Asian Studies: Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 37-44.

Further Notes on the Frame-first Vessels of Tamil Nadu

Abstract: A further season of fieldwork was undertaken during January 1999 in the 'Boats of South Asia' series of projects which are funded by the Society for South Asian Studies. The aim of this work was to consolidate and extend what had been learned about selected Tamil vessel types during 1994 & 1997 (Blue et al.1998), by interviewing a wider range of builders and fishermen, and noting any variations from the design, building and operational practices already documented. The sites visited included: the one thoni shipyard active at the present time in Tuticorin; valiant boatyards in Tuticorin and further north: and vattai yards on the western and northern shores of Palk Bay (Fig-1). Boat operations were observed and fishermen interviewed at a number of boat landing places in this region. Two other vessel types noted during the 1997 fieldwork (Blue et al. 1998, pp. 5-6), the cargo ship kotia and the dumb lighter vattai, are to be found in and around Cuddalore, but the 1999 fieldwork was not extended that far north. All these ships and boats are built frame-first (unlike all other traditional plank boats observed on the east coast of India) and they are generally similar in structure and form. Furthermore, they are designed by methods which are variants of a standard procedure which was probably brought to India by Europeans, possibly by the Portuguese in the 16th century (Blue, et al.1998). A systematic survey was not undertaken, but the impression gained during January 1999 was that, compared with 1997, there had been an increase in the number of vallam both under construction and in use. Almost without exception, these vallam were motorised,

An unnoticed relief from the Bhilsa topes and its relationship to the sculpture of Sanchi

Abstract: This essay examines a recently noticed relief from Andheri (Figs. 1-4) identifying its narrative content and locating it within the corpus of early Indian sculpture. It can be shown that the sculpture from the Bhilsa-Sanchi area had clear artistic connections with Bharhut and iconographic links to sites from Andhra Pradesh. A three-part relative chronology will also be suggested, which sequences the many Bhilsa-Sanchi vedikds and provides a temporal context for the recently noticed relief from Andheri. Since the mid-19th century discovery of the Bhilsa topes by Alexander Cunningham, only Sanchi, historically the hub of this constellation of sites, has received attention (Benisti 1986; Brown 1942; Dehejia 1972, 1996, Ferguson 1910; Maisey 1972 reprint; Mitra 1965). In fact, because of its exquisite sculpture and exceptional state of preservation, Sanchi has become one of the most famous and published Buddhist sites in Asia. The remaining Bhilsa topes Satdhara, Sonari, Bhojpur and Andheri (Fig. 5) although massive complexes with extant stupa courts and viharas, have been essentially forgotten. Recently the Archaeological Survey of India has restored the structures at Sonari and parts of Bhojpur and is currently excavating Satdhara. The most isolated and forgotten of these sites, Andheri, still not the focus of work by the Archaeological Survey of India, has survived with a wealth of in situ reliefs and original structures. A survey of the Bhilsa topes conducted in the winter of 1996 by Akira Shimada, Pia Brancaccio and myself produced considerable new evidence regarding the position they occupied in the early Buddhist world of India and the nature of early freestanding Buddhist architecture. The intact site of Andheri, located eight miles southeast of Sanchi on the crest of a steep hill, yielded crucial material. The Andheri structures include a main stupa, with a diameter of 35 ft., two small stupas, 18 ft. and 15 ft. in diameter, along with a large foundation platform for a monastery (Fig. 6). When Alexander Cunningham first visited Andheri in the mid-19th

Orientation by Numbers: the Aya Formula of Indian Architectural Theory

Abstract: Within the design system of Vastu Vidya, or Indian architectural theory, one element is the Aya formula, which belongs to a group of formulae collectively called the Ayadi. While the uses of most formulae of this group are similar to their uses in Jyotisha or astrology, the use of the Aya formula is exclusive to Vastu Vidya. It is appropriate to make the Aya formula the subject of a brief specialist study, because its theoretical and practical significance is often misunderstood by scholarly commentators, and by Vastu consultants in its presentday applications. These Vastu consultants are current practitioners who extract fragments from the corpus of Vastu Vidya, in an attempt to fill the 'spiritual' vacuum created by the inadequacy of the modern design system as an architectural method in the Indian context. Their expertise is introduced into the design process by the client, and often curbs the freedom quintessential for the realisation of the architect's personal approach to design (Chakrabarti 1998, pp. 29-31). In some parts of India, the Aya formula is applied in complete isolation from the body of knowledge to which it belongs. Indeed, a leading Vastu consultant from Bangalore observes that "it is the only aspect of Vaastu Shaastra which is alive in many parts of this country" (Rao 1996, p. 41). Certain aspects of Vastu Vidya are concerned with orientation through principles that prescribe the correct placement of rooms and functions in relation to each other and to the eight major directions (the four cardinals and four intermediary directions). The orientation principles emphasise auspicious location through the discussion of good and bad effects, which are derived from the various associations of the eight directions. The Aya formula stands alongside these orientation principles. The main purpose of the formula as will be shown below is to translate directional quality into site proportion. It is like being able to measure, metaphorically, the smell of music, or the sound of colour. The formula reveals the latent directional quality of the site, which may or may not match its actual aspect. By translating direction into site proportion, the formula throws open the possibility of changing the aspect of the site, in order to adopt the desired orientation in terms of the numbers that scale the site. The definition of Aya given here draws on a variety of leading texts which include Manasara, Mayamata, Samamngana Sutradham, Rajavallabha, Vislwakarma Prakasha, Ayatattva, Vastusara Prakarna, Shilpashastram, and Bhubanapmdipa, among others. Manasara belongs to the Gupta period (450-550 AD). Exhaustive in its treatment of proportionate measurement, it discusses the application of the Ayadi formulae repeatedly; as its leading editor P. K. Acharya notes "The testing of measurements by the Shadvarga (the set of Aya formulae) thus formed one of the most important points to be followed in architecture and sculpture, and we find a reference to it in these ancient works so many times and almost without exception wherever there are any specifications prescribed" (Acharya 1934, pp. 606-607). Mayamata of the Chola period (9th 12th centuries) forewarns us in the discussion of the Ayadi system that "As the transgression of these rules leads to failure, nothing should be undertaken prior to deep study" (Mayamata IX.24; Dagens, 1980, p. 27). Samarangana Sutradham, written around the 11th century, specialises in secular architecture. Related to the Nagara school of architecture, it is attributed to Bhojadeva, who was probably the king Bhoja of Dhara. Rajavallabha by Sutradharamandana belongs to the 15th century, and was commissioned by Rana Kumbhakarna of Mewar. Vishvakarma Prakasha is a text attributed to the divine architect, Vishvakarma. It has ancient but uncertain origins from before 6th century (Bhattacharya 1963, pp. 112-113) and in its present form was first published in 1817. Ayatattva is a short text that deals extensively with the Aya calculations; is attributed to Vishvakarma, and was written by Manadana Sutradhara in the 15th century. Vastusara Prakarna was written by Thakkur Pheru in 1315 AD, in Delhi (Jaina 1936, p. 10). The date of Shilpashastram is uncertain, but it is considered "as old as Matsyapuranam, which has been approximately fixed in the Gupta period. It is interesting to note that the tradition is still living in the heart of Orissa" (Bose 1928, p. XXVIII). Bhubanapradipa is attributed to Vishvakarma, and the present version is based on five manuscripts collected from the district of Puri, first published in 1932 (Bose 1982, pp. 4-5). Tantrasamucchaya was written by Narayana in the early 15th century, and regards Mayamata as one of its sources (Mallaya 1949, pp. ii-iii). Brihat Samhita by Varahamihira is a well known work on astrology and miscellaneous subjects, including architecture, placed before the 6th century (Bhattacharya 1963, pp. 112-113). Narada Samhita attributed to Narada is

Lower Doab and Oudh: Sites between Pratapgarh and Sitapur

Abstract: The British-Indian 'Oudh', or the vernacular 'Avadh', is geographically a little undefined; it was along the Faizabad-Allahabad axis that we became aware, for the first time, of the mellifluous strain of 'Avadhi', the language of Avadh. Broadly, this is also the dividing axis between the middle and upper Ganga plains. The upper Ganga plain has three components: the Doab proper, a fork of land projecting upward from the meeting point of the Ganga and Yamuna at Allahabad; Rohilkhand, the plain districts below the Term of Nainital; and Oudh, which is more of a political than a geographical concept and has its centre focused between modern Lucknow and ancient Ayodhya. Along the Yamuna, especially from the area of Fatehpur-Kanpur upward, there are long stretches of gullied land which are basically the results of erratic rainfall and erosion. Otherwise there is no evidence of a drastic transition from the middle to the upper Ganga. Changes in rainfall and crop-patterns, which doubtlessly exist between the two zones, do not readily manifest themselves either in the landscape or in the archaeological record. We certainly missed the lush mango-groves of Pratapgarh as we moved upward towards Rae Bareli, but otherwise it is the same landscape which is traversed by the major flows of the Ganga, Yamuna, Sarayu, Gomati and their endlessly meandering tributaries, and bears the scars of changes in the ancient drainage lines in the form of numerous Tals or swampy depressions. There is no drastic change in the archaeological sequence either; Black-and-Red Ware (BRW), Black-Slipped Ware (BSW), Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) and later historic wares, to which we got used in the middle Ganga plain, still occur prominently on the surface. However, both Ochreand R.N. SINGH