Showing papers in "The Review of Korean Studies in 2004"

Negotiating National and Transnational Identities through Consumption Choices: Hamburgers, Espresso, and Mobile Technologies among Koreans

Abstract: Notions of nationalism, globalization, and transnationalism interplaying with one another in the consumption pattern of Koreans in several kinds of commodities are examined in this paper: hamburgers, rice, espresso coffee, and mobile technological goods. These commodities were introduced to Korean society at different times and in different contexts. By examining how these are received (or rejected) by different groups of Koreans at different junctures in their nation’s history, and how the Korean consumers have characterized the commodities and rationalized and negotiated their consumption choices, we can understand how Koreans’ identities have transformed through the nation’s recent history in the globalizing world. Both globalism and transnationalism are highly relevant concepts in understanding the above issues as some multinational companies and Korean consumers have negotiated and contested the meanings of rational consumer choices and nationalistic sentiments towards particular commodities or brands. It is argued that global identity and global connectedness have become important components of classbased identities among today’s Koreans. This study also shows that the nationalistic attitude of Koreans in consumption, which has been recognized and emphasized in many existing literature, is in fact more complex and flexible. The role of nationalism in consumption in Korean society also seems to have changed significantly in recent years as Koreans’ self-identity in the globalizing world has transformed.

China’s Attempt at “Stealing” Parts of Ancient Korean History

Abstract: China has already engaged in the massive task of assimilating Korean history as part of its own history via the Northeast Asia Project that was launched in 2002. They had already shown their intent in the past by distorting the facts regarding Balhae to suit their own historical and political interests. They are now putting their hands on the history of Goguryeo, and they will also target the matter of Gojoseon as well as the very origin of the Korean people in the near future. If they are not stopped, a huge part of Korean history will be liter¬ally stolen away from Korea. All these maneuverings by the Chinese indicate their current need to maintain control over the Chinese-Korean minorities, but it is also clear that, with regard to the future situations that would undoubtedly unfold, they are viewing the potential for gaining control over the northern region of the Korean peninsula, control in whatever terms that would fit their needs. These actions are also in response to a certain level of the Koreans’ biased perception of their own history. In order to counteract their advances, establishing a long-term system of data collecting and training of scholars is highly recommended.

Confucian Charisma and the True Way of the Moral Politician : Interpreting the Tension between Toegye and Nammyeong in Late Sixteenth Century Joseon

Abstract: This study examines the conflict between Toegye Yi Hwang and Nammyeong Jo Shik, the leading Neo-Confucian scholars of 16th century Joseon Korea. Previous studies have attributed the conflict to either personal temperament or philosophical differences. However, this study finds the fundamental reason of their conflict in the political problem: whether an individual Sarim scholar's moral charisma is compatible with the formation of the Sarimpa and their politicization. Toegye advocated the politics of lineage in order to construct Confucian moral society. His private academy movement played a catalytic role in producing Confucian scholar-officials. By so doing, Toegye entrusted Confucian scholars with actual political power. However, on the other hand, he made the king a symbolic figure by exalting the sacred lineage of kingship, instead of the individual king's discretionary power. In contrast, Nammyeong found in Toegye's project a critical moral problem. For him, Toegye's politics of lineage was nothing but a justification for the routinization of the individual scholar's moral charisma. He thought a king was the sole legitimate political ruler, and thus, he did not believe Confucian scholars should replace the king as actual political performers. For him, the sole and original mission of Confucian scholars was to admonish a king, thereby making him a sage-king. This paper argues that this approach is conducive to a deepened understanding of the nature of Confucian politics in general.

King Jeongjo’s Political Role in the Conflicts between Confucianism and Catholicism in Eighteenth-Century Korea

Abstract: This article explores King Jeongjo’s role in coping with the religious conflicts among the intellectuals in eighteenth-century Joseon. My argument is that King Jeongjo’s ruling style led Catholicism debates into political persecutions. He has been regarded, in most existing works, as generous and tolerable to Catholicism. In those works, King Jeongjo was on the defense line against Anti-Catholicism attacks during his reign, but after his sudden death, Pyokpa, the political rivals of the Namin, took retaliatory action in the name of ‘Western Learning. Of course, King Jeongjo had a great interest in “Western Learning” and protected some scholars of the Namin against political attacks. But he took measures that created distrust among his subjects in order to weaken their power. He often followed the tactic of “divide and rule,” so called “like cures like.” In the mean time, the relationship among his subjects grew worse. The leaders of the Noron, for example, said to those of the Namin in the public places, “I will not live with you under the sky.” The Namin, to make things worse, were unexpectedly divided into two groups; pro-Catholicism and anti-Catholicism. The distrust and attacks among the Namin scholars made them irreconcilable, and such became one cause of the martyrdoms of 1801. In sum, King Jeongjo was responsible for the immense political persecution, although it was the unintended results of his actions after his death.

Globalization and the Quality of Life of Korean Farmers

Abstract: The economic well-being of Korean farmers has rapidly and greatly increased thanks to the rapid industrialization of Korea. On the other hand, the economic life of farmers has lost its stability amidst the vortex of the market. In addition to the cyclical crises of the agricultural market, urban and rural income inequality has degraded their quality of life. The relative deprivation of the rural area has forced rural youths to leave the countryside for cities. Thus, the average age of farmers has greatly increased compared to that of workers in other sectors. Youths sent by their rural parents to cities for higher education never return to the countryside to be farmers. Rural areas lose their population and one can readily observe the loss to the communities. Since the late 1980s, globalization has aggravated the quality of life of the farmers. By the pressure of the world powers, the Korean government was forced to change the principle of agricultural policy from family farm support to improvement of competitiveness. To improve competitiveness, the government has generously provided the farmers with low interest loans. Many farmers, including young promising ones, rushed to get these low interest loans from the government. However, price fluctuations and the Financial Crisis of 1997 gave a fatal blow to these farmers. Most farmers faced a debt crisis in the 1990s. They were experiencing the nightmare of globalization. Thus, despite the dramatic improvement in their economic well-being during the period of rapid modernization, their quality of life is so unstable that most farmers say that farming is not promising. Community life is very unsatisfactory. Medical and leisure services for the farmers are very poor. To improve the quality of life of the farmers, the government should pay more attention to the needs of aged farmers, e.g., medical and community services. In addition, to attract young farmers, educational and leisure facilities should be much improved.

Yi Sun-shin, an Admiral Who Became a Myth

Abstract: Koreans’ battle against Japanese imperialism and its blatant invasions, and their subsequent foundation of a modern nation, led them to rediscover several heroes within their own history. Admiral Yi Sun-shin, who fought the Japanese forces during the Imjin Waeran and saved the Korean people, was one of the historical figures praised most highly. But his glorious victories and achievements had already been praised and honored since the midJoseon dynasty. When meritorious attainers were being appointed right after the Imjin Waeran, the victories that Yi Sun-shin had achieved in his sea battles were being cited as part of the major factors that contributed to the repelling of the Japanese troops. Quite oddly, though, Admiral Weon Gyun’s victories were being highly spoken as well for political reasons. After the Byeongja Horan, the level of praises and honoring of the achievements of Admiral Yi Sun-shin became more heightened, and countless occasions to honor him and his achievements were continuously arranged. After the defeat under the Chinese Qing dynasty troops at the time, Korean people’s worshipping of a competent military leader who repelled enemy forces with superior power was higher and stronger than ever. During the reign of King Sukjong, the honoring of Yi Sun-shin took on another level of interest, as Yi Sun-shin came to be praised as a loyal vassal of the King who served the Joseon king well and also saved the civilization of Ming China that was flourishing on the Korean peninsula. This was because the general sentiment of the time was that Joseon was the true successor of the cultural essence of Ming China in all possible ways. During the modern times, Yi Sun-shin’s status was once again elevated to that of a national hero, and the Turtle Ship (Geobukseon) developed by him is perceived and believed to be the world’s first armored ship. But during the Japanese colonial period, some revised nationalists demoted him as an exemplary person and not a national hero. Several evaluations of Yi Sun-shin with different nuances continued even after the liberation in 1945. Especially during the early days of the Park Chung Hee regime, Yi Sun-shin was praised as a savior of the nation, and he was praised as an honorary person who was truly loyal during the 1970s when the authoritative regime continued. Different evaluations on Yi Sun-shin remind us of the unfortunate days when presidents had the power to influence the objects of worship.

Zhu Xi’s Ge-wu-zhi-zhi Theory and Its Implications in Reconstructing the Postmodern Curriculum

Abstract: During the past few decades, effort has been exerted to unearth the limitations embedded in thought on the modern curriculum (deconstructive postmodern efforts) and to search for an alternative form of curricular discourse beyond the limits of modern thought (reconstructive postmodern efforts). In the deconstructive and reconstructive endeavors, the educational thought of Zhu Xi, a Neo-Confucian scholar, is applicable. In this paper, what has been attempted is the portrayal of essential features of Zhu Xi’s educational thought, and also examined was what his thought implies to our efforts to re-understand and reconstruct the field of curriculum in the postmodern era. Zhu Xi, called a synthesizer of Neo-Confucian doctrines, believes there exists an ultimate reality that eradicates everything in the universe. But it does not easily come within us due to the imperfection of our mind. It is not hidden, nor is it kept in darkness. We cannot see it only because the eyes of our minds are veiled. If there exists “a perfect light” that can be unilaterally shed onto the object inside the mind, then reality will be fully manifested by that light. However, this is not possible with the mind as it is. The workings of the mind are always restrained, depending sometimes on the movement of other things in water and at other times on the natural and artificial forces from the outside. In order to recover the original brilliance of the bead, we must make effort to govern the internal and external forces that sway our mind. This is the so-called process of self-cultivation. If there is no process of self-cultivation to overcome the limitations of the mind, then the mind and the world cannot completely expose their true identities and face each other. Zhu Xi’s ge-wu-zhi-zhi theory explains the way that the mind and the world truly meet through self-cultivation. It is in this sense that Zhu Xi’s theory can be seen as a valuable and original curriculum theory. According to Zhu Xi, since (wo)man is created after the great ultimate called li, his/her xing (nature) is assumed to be essentially complete. In spite of the essential completeness of humanity, human conduct is not always good because we follow our feelings in everyday life. This is why self-cultivation is necessary in the process of realizing essential completeness. In Zhu Xi’s thoughts on education, the ultimate goal of education is to restore such original completeness of (wo)man. How is it possible for a (wo)man to reach the original state of completeness, i.e., his/her own nature? Zhu Xi applied his entire academic endeavor to this question and suggested a variety of rich ideas, the essence of which can be characterized by ge-wu-zhi-zhi and the “self-cultivation” theory. In spite of the recent diverse efforts to reconstruct the field of curriculum, it can not be denied that the dominant patterns of discourse still stand in the midst of the modern educational paradigm. Zhu Xi’s thought on education provides us with rich insights in our efforts to reflect on modern educational thought and to re-understand and reconstruct thought and practice on curriculum. The implications of Zhu Xi’s thought in our effort to build a new curriculum paradigm are manifold. Zhu Xi’s interpretation of the mind asks us to see students as active beings of desire. Although Zhu Xi acknowledged from the beginning that (wo)man is a being with desires, he emphasized appropriate exercise of these desires instead of regarding them merely as objects of elimination, placing the basis of internal control on the mind. Zhu Xi’s ge-wu-zhi-zhi theory also allows us to see the nature of school knowledge in a different way. Knowledge contained in ge-wuzhi-zhi theory emphasizes contextual appropriateness, because it attempts to uncover the ultimate reality within the living conditions of the self. Zhu Xi’s emphasis on self-cultivation is especially suggestive in the sense that it unfolds a new possibility to overcome ethical issues. Zhu Xi suggests self-cultivation is essential in the education process not only because it guides students to uncover their true selves but because it also leads them to search for the eternal reality of the world. Reconstruction of an appropriate curriculum paradigm requires various and infinite endeavors. Our small effort to bridge Zhu Xi’s thought on the postmodern curriculum discourse is expected to be meaningful for future education.

Leaflets, and the Nature of the Korean War as Psychological Warfare

Abstract: As it was interconnected with the Cold War situation on a global scale, the Korean War gave us one of the most vivid demonstrations of clashes between ideologies in recent history. Naturally in a war of such a nature, the opponents not only used armies and weapons. They resorted to psychological warfare and tactics utilizing propaganda as well. Literally, the combatants made up images and spread them. In this research, the leaflets deployed and distributed by the UN forces, the North Korean Army, and the Chinese communist forces are mainly examined. Although the research concentrates slightly more on the US army’s tactics of psychological warfare, the primary objective for this research is to determine what kind of “Images of War” were produced, and what the mindsets behind such creations were. By conducting such research, we are able to identify the official ideologies that the combatants wanted to force the general public to accept. We are also able to figure out how such images and ideologies were accepted and processed in the general public’s mind. And in the end, we should be able to determine how people with war experiences came to possess and maintain memories regarding certain events that happened during the war. Leaflets were distinctively important methods used in psychological warfare. The US army distributed more than 2.5 billion leaflets by the time the truce was signed. Those leaflets were designed to provide personal incentives to the recipients or to persuade them to have second thoughts about their situation in terms of ideological preference. The former included examples of surrender passes or suggestions of good treatment to potential prisoners of war. The latter contained stories with themes such as the supposed harsh treatment of the public committed by Communist regimes, or criticism against North Korea and China for being the socalled “Puppet regimes” of Soviet Russia. The theory of a fake, “pseudo-Kim Il Sung” is a typical form of the latter. This theory was created during the time period when the US army set up a military government in Korea and was spread during the Korean War by US Army’s Far East Command. The US also started to depict China as a puppet of the USSR after the communization of China. The Secretary of State Department Dean Rusk openly said on May 1951 that the People’s Republic of China was merely a “Slavic Manchukuo.” The fact that a theory of this nature was included even in the report of the Far East Command strongly suggests that the US army was in political need of the image of Kim Il Sung being nothing but a fake figure. This image, and the intentions surrounding its creation, clearly demonstrates a Cold War mentality, and we can see that US had to maintain that image because of its own political and economical interests. Many American social scientists, especially the behavioral scientists, contributed to the US army’s creation of a “Cold War Enemy.” These people served as consultants for the US army and played an instrumental role in applying psychological warfare tactics based on behavioral science developed from World War II to the Korean War that in turn provided the American community of social scientists with the very first opportunity to study communist society firsthand. American social scientists studied North Korean society through the Sovietization theory, and created images of NK based on that theory. The Korean War is mostly remembered for its ideological warfare. As the war progressed, the inherent ideological and international nature of the war became more and more apparent, and in the end ideological propaganda became a more important issue than any other thing, even the outcome of the actual war. The Korean War served as a battlefield international in scale and required that combatants play psychological warfare for their survival. This led to the enforcement of anti-communist sentimentality within Korean society, and this hatched numerous political images.

Representing Korea as the "Other": Ernst J. Oppert's A Forbidden Land: Voyages to the Corea

Abstract: This paper endeavors to analyze A Forbidden Land: Voyages to the Corea (1880), a text written by a Jewish-Prussian by the name of Ernst J. Oppert. I focus on Oppert’s representation of Korea mirrored by China and Japan because his discovery of Korea was mediated by that of the other two empires. In the first place, I argue that the biography of Oppert, merely known as a “traveler” or “ethnographer” (or merchant), should be taken into re-consideration as an author and must be more complexly reevaluated in light of the nineteenth century European colonial projects in Asian countries that he actively participated in during his stay in Shanghai. The text, in this sense, must be positioned as one of the early Westerners’ writings on Korea in which discourses on the “forbidden land” were being constructed in comparison with China and Japan whose doors were already open. While the text, according to the author, was intended to attract the Western public’s attention and subsequently to commence with trade and commerce, it in fact reflected Oppert’s “colonial” desire to open a “sealed book” (Oppert 1880:3). The text can be divided into two parts. The first contains chapters one to six that introduce almost all aspects of Korea but rely on European research achievements and their translations of Chinese and Japanese historical sources. The second part, chapters seven to nine, cover Oppert’s three voyages allegedly designed to arrange trade partnerships with the Joseon government, yet which I posit into “encounters” between the two heterogeneous worlds. In this part, different worldviews between Oppert and the native officials were dramatically expressed in relation to the then priority of the “pening of the ports.” By perceiving the “hermit kingdom” mainly in the dialogues with and references to China and Japan who opened their doors earlier, Korea was represented as “in-between” and “uncivilized.”

Nationalism, Transnationalism, and Sport: A Case Study on Michelle Wie

Abstract: This paper examines nationalism in Korean popular culture in the era of transnationalism by delving into the case of Michelle Wie, a Korean-American and a global sports star. I focus on the mass media’s representation of her both in Korea and the U.S. I also explore the responses of people in both countries, paying special attention to the discussions in cyberspace. Analysis of Korean newspaper articles reveals a strong ethnic nationalist sentiment that reflects the atmosphere of Korean society. In contrast, the U.S. mass media has never raised any issues about her nationality, because, according to the civic nationalist view that is popular in the U.S., there is no room for doubt about it. The hottest topics of discussion about her in several Korean websites are her nationality and Korean mass media’s handling of her. Debates are ongoing between those who stick to the viewpoint of ethnic nationalism and those who maintain a civic nationalist view. Here we witness the encounters of two nationalisms not only between the media in Korea and the U.S., but also among internet users in Korea. The latter may be interpreted as Koreans moving away from the traditional, descent-based, and emotional nationalism in Korean society.

The Growth of Individuals and Social Transformation in the Korean Bronze Age

Abstract: This article aims at interpreting the change of material culture in the Korean Bronze Age with regard to symbolic structure. For this work, first of all, it has been pointed out that the existing research paradigms based on culture-historical and processual approaches fail to interpret the process and the reason of that change at a deeper level. Instead, as an alternative, a synthetic view, in which settlement (for every day life) and burial (for mortuary practice) and their reciprocal relationship are taken into account in social and symbolic structure, has been suggested. In order to substantiate this approach, the analysis on spatial structure has been conceived and carried out under the premise that space or place is a field in which temporal sequence and power relation is marked, and is meaningfully constructed or even thrown to us. As a result, a conclusion has been drawn that communality and the role of a common origin within a community is emphasised in the middle phase. By contrast, the growth of individuals and individual expression is observed in the late phase. This change does mean a fundamental change in the ways of symbolic structure, power execution and further, a formation of community and individual identity.

International Situation in East Asia and Changes in Goguryeo’s Foreign Policy

Abstract: An inquiry into the development process of Goguryeo’s foreign policy was made in this paper while the synthesis of international order in East Asia and the internal conditions of Goguryeo were taken into consideration. And the fact that Goguryeo actively negotiated with the Chinese dynasties as well as Baekje and Silla south of the Korean peninsula, the Japanese across the sea, and various tribes in the northern regions can be verified through this inquiry. The development process of Goguryeo’s foreign policy can be understood in terms of three periods: First to the third century, fourth to the mid-sixth century, and late sixth century to mid-seventh century. Goguryeo expanded its territory toward the East Sea and other areas by utilizing the pacifying foreign policy of China's Later Han dynasty. But an unstable international relationship was maintained through the “safeguarding of the right to existence” and “returning to the China-centric control and order” as Goguryeo repeatedly went through confrontation and investiture with the Later Han dynasty. This aspect continued even during the regime of the Gongson clan (公孫氏) and the relationship with Wei China in the third century. The unitary China-centric international order collapsed in early fourth century due to the fall of the Western Jin, and a pluralistic international order developed in its stead. At this juncture, Goguryeo pursued a foreign policy of forming peaceful diplomatic relations with the Chinese dynasties to stabilize the western borderlands on the one hand while establishing its territorial rights in the eastern region. Thus, Goguryeo was able to establish a great empire in the fifth century that spanned from the middle to southern regions of Manchuria to the middle and northern regions of the Korean peninsula. The international order in East Asia changed once again due to Sui dynasty’s unification of China in the late sixth century. Goguryeo had no choice but to confront Sui dynasty China head-on because of Sui’s unitary pursuit of China-centric international order. As such, Goguryeo prepared for the Sui invasion from the northwest while attempting to rebuild its territorial rights by invading the southern regions of the Korean peninsula. Such foreign policy was maintained even after the founding of China’s Tang dynasty. As mentioned above, Goguryeo responded flexible to the changes in the international conditions of East Asia and commanded diverse foreign policies, resulting in territorial rights in the northeastern region in the fifth to sixth century. However, Goguryeo brought on the alliance between Na and Tang troops in the middle of the seventh century by pursuing a firm unilateral foreign policy. Moreover, Goguryeo fell when in was jointly attacked by the Na-Tang allied troops amidst intensification of the internal power struggles among its aristocrats.

The Formation of Gojoseon and Its Social Characteristics

Abstract: This article examines the process of establishing the state of Gojoseon and its national characteristics. Gojoseon established its nation in the process of social specialization due to the development of agricultural productivity of the metallic culture including iron-utensils with its foundation in the society of bronze-utensils. The period seemed to be roughly around the third to fourth century B.C. In the records of Wiryak (魏略) and other documents, it is stated that many surrounding tribes made alliances with Joseonhu (朝鮮侯) at their center. The Yemaek (滅貊族) who were living around the Liaodong (遼東) region also formed as a regular regional group and appeared as the tribe nearest Joseon. Thus Liaodong, the northwestern region of Korea where regional groups such as Jinbeon and Yemaek lived had formed an alliance centered on Joseon, making Joseon the central state of this alliance. Gojoseon had gained its power around the fourth century B.C. Thus it strengthened its ruling power in the regional group of Yemaek-lineage in Liaodong region and influenced small states such as Jinbeon (眞番) and Imdun (臨屯). The king of Joseon Huguk (朝鮮侯國) at the time exercised the responsibility of chief leader of the alliance. He prepared an immature administrative system, because he needed professional management. As mentioned above, Gojoseon equipped itself as a nation in the fourth century B.C. After its fall, the culture and residents of Gojoseon continued into, and was the foundation for, the Three Kingdoms. After understanding the ruling structure of Nangnanggun (樂浪郡) and its system of counties and prefectures, clarifying the different influences Gojoseon people had on the formation of Silla (新羅) and Goguryeo (高句麗) is definitely necessary.

Goguryeo Culture and Mural Paintings

Abstract: Mural paintings in ancient tombs reflect the past ages. They are a “testimony of history” containing pictures and ideas of those who lived in the past and show the culture of the day as it was. Therefore, it is difficult to understand the paintings without considering the history and culture of those days. Analysis of the formation and content of mural paintings in Goguryeo’s ancient tombs is interlocked with understanding the path that Goguryeo had traveled, i.e., its social and cultural processes. Goguryeo history drew people’s attention in the 1990s. In particular, mural paintings in ancient tombs are emerging as a major subject of study due to their value as materials with abundant content. It is more encouraging that many treatises are being published with Goguryeo’s mural paintings as the subject. However, attempts have not been made to link the mural paintings in ancient tombs, which are the basis of funeral art, to the society and culture of the times (Jeon Ho-tae 1997b). Such an attempt must be made even if only in the sense of just presenting the data for “examination and discussion,” although there are still several areas which are hard to ascertain. This paper was prepared with this purpose in mind.

Emergence of Sociopolitical Differentiation in Korean Prehistory

Abstract: This paper explores the development of sociopolitical complexy in southwest Korea’s Boseong River Valley. One of the main archaeological tasks currently being pursued in Korea is charting the emergence of complex society there. This paper attempts to embark on an analysis of the trajectory towards complexity in a selected region of southwest Korea. A large scale archaeological project in the Boseong River Valley during the 1980s rescued a huge corpus of data threatened by the construction of the Juam Dam project. I draw on this corpus, organizing and analyzing the data it yields on burial practices, because the categories of information from the data are particularly useful in examining key research issues. The burial excavations were of unprecedented scope, with 381 dolmen graves identified in twenty-three locations. Many dolmens have been observed and investigated in Korea, but an excavation sample of this size is unique and presents a rare analytical opportunity. An analysis of burial furnishings from these dolmens identifies five categories that reflect differing social statuses. Charting the distribution of such burials within the region allows the mapping of zones differentially occupied by persons of varying social status and of the places on the landscape where elite personages were situated. These patterns illustrate a picture of a class-differentiated society within the region. Based on this analysis, I conclude that the dolmen period society of the Boseong River Valley had advanced to an intermediate level of sociopolitical complexity. In conclusion, the archaeological evidence is discussed with reference to historical events in the region, as these are known from ancient Chinese and Korean chronicles, to propose an interpretation of the growth of cultural development in the Boseong River Valley in relation to broader developments in southern Korea.

The Race against Time : Disintegration of the Chang Myun Government and Aborted Democracy

Abstract: This essay seeks to find the causes of the Chang Myun government's disruption in internal, rather than external, factors. It is argued that it was not the acceleration of social polarization that directly brought about the collapse of the government. Rather, at the time of the military coup, the government had already fallen into the state of ungovernability due to disintegration from within. This essay aims to explain the process of its downfall, while focusing on how unstable the Chang Myun cabinet was and how inadequate the government's ruling and management capabilities were. Why did the government, which had been founded upon wide popular support, fail to take an initiative in leading social forces by exercising necessary power on one hand and dominating the political agenda in advance on the other? Why could it not effectively command or manage the police or the military in particular, which was prerequisite for maintaining social stability? Why was the Chang Myun government not able to take the initiative with regard to such urgent issues as national reunification or economic development? To put it bluntly, why was the government lacking in necessary ruling and management capabilities? This paper attempts to find the answers to these questions by scrutinizing the internalstructure of the government.

Listening to the Beat of Different Drums : Rituals, Music, and Ideology in Goryeo

Abstract: Music played an important role in the Goryeo dynasty. The administrative apparatus of Goryeo was largely Confucian in orientation and as such, music was considered to be of paramount importance in the proper performance of rituals. The Goryeosa mentions that Chinese ritual music was originally performed together with indigenous Goryeo music at the ancestral shrines of the Goryeo rulers. This fact is significant because it reveals the existence of heterogeneous elements within a tradition that is often portrayed as homogeneous and also offers an avenue for further exploration into the composition of Goryeo ideology. The present article looks at Goryeo ideology from a pluralist perspective. Using the example of mixed performances of ritual music, it describes and analyses the co-existence of different ideological elements in the same space. As such, it tries to offer an alternative for the abundance of one-dimensional characterizations of Goryeo and argues that in Goryeo’s ideological landscape ideology functioned in a dynamical discourse where boundaries overlapped, intersected and were never absolute. In short, this article explores the different ideological elements of Goryeo by means of focusing on Goryeo ritual music.

Japan’s “Distorted” Memory of the Donghak Peasant Uprising and the Sino-Japanese War

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to elucidate the Japanese people’s memory of Japanese plundering in Asia at the end of the nineteenth century that started the Donghak Peasant Uprising and Sino-Japanese War. Below, each of the total six sections of this essay will be summarized. The first section presents the backdrop of the currently existing Japanese right-wing phenomenon that helped elect Ishihara Shintaro into office, and highlights how historical understanding becomes beautified and “distorted” with an in-depth analysis of the nineteenth century, when Japanese plunder in Asia sparked the Donghak Peasant and Sino-Japanese Wars. The second section covers the distortions of Japanese historical textbooks as represented in the Saeroun yeoksa gyogwaseo (The New History Textbook), issued in 2001, and analyzes the related accounts between the rise of the Donghak Peasant and Sino-Japanese Wars and points out how this historical “distorted” memory actually gets reproduced in contemporary Japanese society. The third section analyzes the deeply rooted history of Japanese distorted facts concerning the Donghak Peasant and Sino-Japanese Wars, starting with the “royal edict propaganda” of 1894, the government’s first history textbook, official military histories, and clears up the facts of where the formation of Japanese “distorted” memory originated by looking at similar past textbooks, war history books, researchers, etc. The fourth section clears up nothing less than the origin of the Japanese “distorted” memory of the Donghak Peasant and Sino-Japanese Wars - the facts about the first use of armed forces to “seize the Joseon Royal Palace incident” that started the Donghak War and related historical materials that were, from the outset, fabricated by the Japanese government administrators and militarists. The fifth section studies the records left behind by the Donghak Peasant Army Leader, Jeon Bong-Jun, the Righteous Army Leader, Seo Sang-Cheol, and the former scholar official, Hwang Hyeon to see how the Joseon people undertood the “seizure of the Joseon Royal Palace incident.” All of them understood that the “seizure of the Joseon Royal Palace incident” was clearly an act of plunder. Their kind of understanding at that time is diametrically opposed to that of the Japanese. Lastly, the conclusion points out how, as the Japanese reproduce the “distorted” memory of history and beautify their aggressive war, the relationship between both Korea and Japan in a genuine era of exchange will continue be difficult.

The Joseon Public’s Perception of the War during the World War II Period

Abstract: During the Second World War, the people of Joseon lived under the control of Japanese Fascism which permeated into the web of everyday life. The Joseon people were legally regarded as “the second nation” or “half nation” of Japan and some cooperated with their war effort in the hope of possible Japanese triumph. Though many prospected the defeat of Japan, most of the Joseon people kept silent and passively adjusted themselves to Japanese rule. However, the discontent came out and most of it was related to wartime policy. There was also a certain degree of difference in this regard between the generations. The “older generation” born before the coercive annexation did not experience the education and enlightenment of the Japanese style had a half-feudalistic mind and difficulties in transforming into the type of people required by Japanese Imperialists or “the modern type of men.” They had the tendency of trying to overcome the anxious life of wartime through superstition and religion. Under the condition of Japanese Wartime Fascism that sanctioned the Emperor system only, their behavior was interpreted as resistance against war. On the other hand, the “younger generation” born after the annexation experienced Japanese institutional education and were different from the “older generation.” They experienced the process of colonialist capitalization, individualism, meritocracy, and rationalism, which were all embedded in their minds. Also, they fell into a “chauvinistic nationalism” as the effect of colonial policy and distorted modern consciousness and false political consciousness concerning the rights and responsibilities of “the nation” were formed. Their awareness of potential Japanese defeat in the Second World War encouraged them toward direct political practice in expectation of the liberation of Joseon and the building of a new nation. In addition, it provided the foundation of the younger generation’s selective participation in the nation building process of the north and south that developed under the conflict between the left and the right after liberation.

Formation and Transformation of the Material Flow System in Ancient Korea

Abstract: Trading of goods of equal value began in the Neolithic Age in the form of reciprocal exchanges between communities. Moreover, the act of exchange began between groups rather than between individuals within the same group, and the chief of the community initiated trade. This situation continues in a more consolidated form after the Bronze Age when community order is dissolved and political society forms. The form of ruling power, however, changes to regional groups or the chieftain (首長) class of small states, and political and diplomatic characteristics in external trade become more prominent. It seems that the appearance of civilians as occupational merchants, no matter how insignificant, occurred as mankind entered the Iron Age. The wealthy class that accumulated wealth through trading were called “homin” (wealthy commoner) or “daega” (prosperous family). This class participated in external trade until the beginning of the ancient states, but their activities became restricted to domestic commerce as the centralized royal family slowly monopolized the rights to external trade. As the system of centralized authority became reorganized, sovereignty in ancient times attempted to gain control over not only external trade but domestic commerce as well. However, the domain of the civilian material flow system persistently maintained its existence. Originally, a shi (市, market) was a place where the most important meetings of regional groups were held and where diverse activities such as official business, justice, and redistribution were carried out. Incidental exchange did occur during the process of taxing and redistributing items used in sacrificial rituals, and commercial transactions grew in each locality as the production of merchandise and the material flow of goods developed outside the shi. This was then absorbed as part of the state order with the establishment of official markets during the Three Kingdoms period. The sovereignty in ancient times that had monopolized external trade after the establishment of the system of centralized authority took control over the two domains of trade by controlling the domain of domestic commerce through the official merchant and the official market system. In the case of Silla, conversion from priesthood to pumju became systematized at some point in time after the reign of Cheomhae isageum to the beginning of the maripgan (aka maripkan, a form of ruler) period, and pumju emerged as the first government financial institution. In specific regions, warehouse facilities, the powerful economic foundation of regional groups, were established as “sigeup” (食邑), or “stipend village” (祿邑, land given to government officials as salary) of highranking noblemen instead of being incorporated into the state’s financial organization after a system of ordinance was created in the sixth century. From mid-Silla, the “changbu” (倉部, a government office of finance) created the structure of left warehouse and right warehouse, which collected taxes from goods coming in from all directions and distributed operating expenses as well as pay the centralized government bu (political units based on regions and tribes), noblemen, and bureaucrats after the unification of the Three Kingdoms. Furthermore, the high-ranking noblemen of Silla sometimes sold agricultural and stock products from privately operated workshops, farmsteads, or ranches through agents. Some of the products were exported abroad. It seems that noblemen and the homin who succeeded the traditional homin or daega led the commerce in distant places with small-sized merchant groups until the middle of the Silla period. Surplus products from civilian manufactures must have been procured without incident in order for commerce concentrated in major cities to be active. It became difficult to satisfy such a precondition in the late Silla period, however, because the farmer and handicraft manufacturing classes collapsed, which led to difficulty in collecting taxes. The downfall of the direct manufacturing class brought about a reduction in the activities of official merchants, but the domain of civilian commerce grew because the commoners who experienced this downfall engaged in commerce. Thus, the commercial activities of the homin class that started at the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period continued. Although they cannot be called occupational merchants, noblemen and monasteries assisted in encroaching upon the material flow system led by the state by participating in commerce with their own autonomous production organizations. Civilian markets emerged in the capital city as civilian commerce became active, and the autonomy of the official markets increased so that they could break away from the control of the state. The sphere of civilian commerce not only expanded its territory in domestic commerce but also entered into external trade as of the end of the middle period. As can be seen in the example of Jangbogo, commoners from the province sometimes led external trade, especially at the end of Silla. This is different from the situation where the domain of state material flow controlled domestic and external commerce until the mid-Silla period. Provincial forces that maintained their independence in various locations at the time became a substitute for the material flow system led by the state during the Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla period not only by participating in domestic and external trade but also by forming an autonomous network for material flow based on political and military backings and taxes collected in the regions which they ruled.

Eon’gan: Vernacular Letters of Korea during the Joseon Period

Abstract: Eon’gan were the common means to express the private feelings of everyday life during the Joseon period. From the above, we see that eon’gan were used widely, from the king as well all the way to the lower classes, and thus, eon’gan have become a precious soil in which the Korean language has been preserved. Eon’gan are totally free of the characteristics of translated materials; they show a natural word order and contain the rich everyday vocabulary of the Korean language of the time. Also, eon’gan are colloquial in that they precisely reflect the honorific system, the dialect, and the spoken form of the contemporary language more than any other material. As such, they complement the printed materials that were centered on translation and contribute greatly to the depth and breadth of research conducted on the history of the Korean language. On the other hand, the contents of eon’gan display the actual daily life of the times, so they are also active materials for research on the living history of Koreans, and the history of Korean folklore and education, and so on. That is to say, eon’gan are not only valuable for studying the Korean language, but also can be used for research in various other fields. We should actively promote the discovery of new eon’gan and push for further interdisciplinary studies in the future.

The Concept of Agricultural People and Changes in their Worldviews

Abstract: This paper examines form of rituals and changes in the worldviews based on changes in perceptions during the period when agricultural production began and became common due to the entry into an agricultural society. Regardless of the quantity, the social structural and conceptual changes that occurred during the process of entering into an agricultural society were known to be great enough to be called epochal. The Korean peninsula went through many changes in the perception of its people when it became an agricultural society as opposed to mainly hunting or foraging society. People became aware of vegetation growth and disappearance, as well as changes in weather and in natural phenomena. Concrete understanding of phenomena and things such as concepts of production and bountifulness, life, death, regeneration, and the land god began to appear around this time period. Such thoughts were represented in various rituals such as agricultural or burial rituals. Perceptual changes from believing in ambiguous nature worship to more functional gods such as Mother Nature or ancestral gods are closely related to the development of social structure. The concept of boundaries was established in communities as population increased and society developed. Living space, production space, tomb space, and ritual space were clearly distinguished, and each ritual was performed in a standardized format. The main rituals were made up of agricultural rituals or the ritual of escorting the body to the gravesite where members of the group jointly participated, and the burying of bronze-ware was initiated by water burial. The function of group rituals within a community is to unify the society by strengthening the relations and bonds among its members and to maintain and develop the entire society. The agricultural society in the southern part of the Korean peninsula not only developed in terms of politics and socioeconomics but was also equipped with a standardized framework in terms of religion and faith. It is important for the development of society to be supported by the spiritual as well as the political and economic aspects. The central power in prehistoric and ancient societies seems to lie within the spiritual such as faith or rituals. Various rituals of agricultural society that accompany practical behavior are valued as having exerted great influence on the transformation and development processes of society. Southern parts of the Korean peninsula continued to inherit and develop worldviews along with social changes for a long period after entering the stage of agricultural society.

Goguryeo Society and Its Economy

Abstract: The power group that led the founding of Goguryeo became the top governing class, and the Gyaeru-bu (桂婁部) royal family from whence the kings had come since the time of Jumong (朱蒙) was at its apex. Remaining local leaders and their own vassals were organized into centralized government officials or local potentates, depending upon the extent of their power. The commoners who were in charge of production were directly subordinate to the village leaders(渠帥) and were ruled by the orders of the community within the eumnak (邑帥) communities, but as agricultural productivity rose and social classification accompanied such rise, their level of independence increased notably. Non-Korean tribes such as Malgal (靺鞨), Georan (契丹), and Seonbi (鮮卑) were all subdued while their ethnic uniqueness continued; they were utilized in times of military or economic need. The economic tradition of hunting and foraging was strong in Goguryeo in the early days due to the fact that it contained much mountainous terrain and few plains, but agriculture gradually became a major industry. Goguryeo was able to financially operate itself through levying taxes on the commoners who were making a living in production. Goguryeo had as its neighboring states strong nations such as Han China, Wiman Joseon, and Buyeo during its formation. Especially after Han China’s conquest of Wiman Joseon, the key point in Goguryeo’ s growth was how reacted with the Han Empire in China. This is because Goguryeo had to repulse the central force that was an obstacle to its national growth on the one hand yet needed to adopt advanced culture in order to consolidate its structure on the other. Goguryeo began diplomatic relations with Great China from the late second century B.C. onwards, which can be divided into four broad stages from the perspective of international trade. Internationally traded items diversified and the arena where exchange occurred, as well as the variety of trade goods, increased particularly in the fourth century to the middle of the sixth century.