How has the design of car engines evolved over time, and what factors have contributed to these changes?4 answersThe design of car engines has evolved over time due to various factors. One major factor is the need to reduce CO2 fleet emissions and improve fuel efficiency, as mandated by the European Union. This has led to a focus on reducing internal friction and downsizing engines, which has increased specific loads and placed higher demands on engine mechanics. Another factor driving engine design changes is the rising cost and environmental impact of gasoline as a fuel source. Car manufacturers are exploring alternative energies, such as compressed air, to power vehicles in a more sustainable and non-polluting way. Additionally, advancements in CAD/CAM technologies and the application of Finite Element Method have allowed for the design and analysis of complex engine components, leading to improved performance and efficiency. The optimization of boosting systems has also played a significant role in increasing fuel efficiency and reducing emissions.
How does the concept of design evolve over time and across different disciplines?4 answersThe concept of design has evolved over time and across different disciplines. Initially, design was seen as an activity linked to operational processes, but it has now become a key strategic process in achieving innovations. In the field of architecture, design paradigms have emerged, focusing on shape grammar, space syntax, and the coevolution of shapes and spatial structures with design thinking. The term "design thinking" has gained popularity and has been applied in various areas, including problem-solving strategies, innovation in large-scale companies, and academic curricula. Design thinking has also expanded beyond traditional design programs and has been used as a tool in fields such as politics and management. The evolution of design thinking has led to a broader conception of design thinking in other domains, with a focus on cognitive style, process-based general theory and method, and as a mindset and resource for the business community. Design has also shifted towards human-centered values, leading to the development of multidisciplinary approaches and the integration of other disciplines.
How have road design standards evolved over time?3 answersRoad design standards have evolved over time to incorporate a broader range of factors and considerations. In the past, the focus was primarily on technical issues related to vehicular travel, such as design speed and access control. However, there has been a shift towards a more comprehensive approach, particularly in urban areas, where factors like noise, air quality, and pedestrian safety are now given more attention. This evolution has led to the emergence of concepts like "traffic calming," "context-sensitive design," and "complete streets". The push for safer road design has also resulted in the development of new road constructions and features, such as roundabouts and speed bumps. However, the increased complexity and variety of these designs have raised concerns about cost, quality, and the need for standardized procedures. Overall, road design has become more influenced by the surrounding environment and the need for livability in adjacent areas.
How has space surgery evolved over time?5 answersSpace surgery has evolved over time to meet the unique challenges of surgical care in space missions. The Integrated Medical Model (IMM) developed by NASA has been instrumental in assessing risk and designing medical systems for space missions. Surgical capabilities aboard space stations and analogue flights have focused on stabilisation, medical evacuation, and ATLS capabilities. However, future missions to the Moon and Mars will require astronauts to troubleshoot, adapt, and self-administer complex surgical care autonomously. Challenges in space surgery include altered physiology, mechanics, and techniques in the microgravity environment, crew selection, prophylactic surgery, lack of ground support, training and maintenance of surgical skills, and hardware limitations. Advanced technologies such as ultrasound imaging, 3D printing, AI-based surgical assistance, and robotic surgery show promise but require further testing. Teleoperated surgical robots have the potential to shape the future of space and Earth healthcare, but latency remains a challenge. The concept of telerobotic surgical care originated from space research and has benefited patients on Earth.
How has the design of inverters evolved over time?5 answersThe design of inverters has evolved over time to meet the demands of various applications. Inverter modules with two stages have been developed, achieving high peak efficiency, low crest factor, and low vTHD. Grid-connected inverters have also seen significant improvements in terms of efficiency, size, weight, and reliability, leading to lower production costs. Multilevel inverters have gained attention for high power applications, offering advantages such as voltage sharing and better voltage waveforms with reduced harmonic content. A new concept of switching with reduced number of switches and batteries has been proposed to simplify the complexity of multilevel inverters. In the field of organic electronic circuits, inverters based on organic electrochemical transistors have been designed to operate at low supply voltages while offering high voltage gain and larger output voltage windows.
How has the design of space watches changed over time?3 answersThe design of space watches has evolved over time to meet the unique requirements of operational satellites and space experiments. Clocks used in operational satellites, such as GPS and MILSTAR, require high reliability parts, radiation hardness, and mechanical design due to the harsh space environment. These clocks are typically a generation behind terrestrial clocks in terms of technology. On the other hand, clocks used in short-term space experiments can be closer in design to ground clocks but often require extensive modifications to be usable for operational systems.