The hazardous effects of pollutants from conventional fuel vehicles have caused the scientific world to move towards environmentally friendly energy sources. Though we have various renewable energy sources, the perfect one to use as an energy source for vehicles is hydrogen. Like electricity, hydrogen is an energy carrier that has the ability to deliver incredible amounts of energy. Onboard hydrogen storage in vehicles is an important factor that should be considered when designing fuel cell vehicles. In this study, a recent development in hydrogen fuel cell engines is reviewed to scrutinize the feasibility of using hydrogen as a major fuel in transportation systems. A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that can produce electricity by allowing chemical gases and oxidants as reactants. With anodes and electrolytes, the fuel cell splits the cation and the anion in the reactant to produce electricity. Fuel cells use reactants, which are not harmful to the environment and produce water as a product of the chemical reaction. As hydrogen is one of the most efficient energy carriers, the fuel cell can produce direct current (DC) power to run the electric car. By integrating a hydrogen fuel cell with batteries and the control system with strategies, one can produce a sustainable hybrid car.

https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/9/11/2296/pdf

Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles; Current Status and Future Prospect

Hybrid and electric vehicles have been demonstrated as auspicious solutions for ensuring improvements in fuel saving and emission reductions. From the system design perspective, there are numerous indicators affecting the performance of such vehicles, in which the powertrain type, component configuration, and energy management strategy (EMS) play a key role. Achieving an energy-efficient powertrain requires tackling several conflicting control objectives such as the drivability, fuel economy, reduced emissions, and battery state of charge preservation, which make the EMS the most crucial aspect of powertrain system design. Accordingly, in the present study, various powertrain systems and topologies of (plug-in) hybrid electric vehicles and full-electric vehicles are assessed. In addition, EMSs as applied in the literature are systematically surveyed for a qualitative investigation, classification, and comparison of existing approaches in terms of the principles, advantages, and drawbacks through a comprehensive review. Furthermore, potential challenges considering the gaps in research are addressed, and directives paving the way toward further development of powertrains and EMSs in all respects are thoroughly provided.

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Thorough state-of-the-art analysis of electric and hybrid vehicle powertrains: Topologies and integrated energy management strategies

Well known as an efficient and eco-friendly power source, fuel cell, unfortunately, offers slow dynamics. When attached as primary energy source in a vehicle, fuel cell would not be able to respond to abrupt load variations. Supplementing battery and/or supercapacitor to the system will provide a solution to this shortcoming. On the other hand, a current regulation that is vital for lengthening time span of the energy storage system is needed. This can be accomplished by keeping fuel cell's and batteries' current slope in reference to certain values, as well as attaining a stable dc output voltage. For that purpose, a feedback control system for regulating the hybrid of fuel cell, batteries, and supercapacitor was constructed for this study. Output voltage of the studied hybrid power sources (HPS) was administered by assembling three dc-dc converters comprising two bidirectional converters and one boost converter. Current/voltage output of fuel cell was regulated by boost converter, whereas the bidirectional converters regulated battery and supercapacitor. Reference current for each converter was produced using Model Predictive Control (MPC) and subsequently tracked using hysteresis control. These functions were done on a controller board of a dSPACE DS1104. Subsequently, on a test bench made up from 6 V, 4.5 Ah battery and 7.5 V, 120 F supercapacitor together with a fuel cell of 50 W, 10 A, experiment was conducted. Results show that constructing a control system to restrict fuel cell's and batteries' current slope and maintaining dc bus voltage in accordance with the reference values using MPC was feasible and effectively done.

Energy Management of Fuel Cell/Battery/Supercapacitor Hybrid Power Sources Using Model Predictive Control

Recently, automotive original equipment manufacturers have focused their efforts on developing greener propulsion solutions in order to meet the societal demand and ecological need for clean transportation, so the development of new energy vehicle (NEV) has become a consensus among governments and automotive enterprises. Efficient electrical energy storage system (EESS) appears to be very promising for meeting the rapidly increased requirements of vehicular applications. It is necessary to understand performances of electrical energy storage technologies. Therefore, this paper reviews the various electrical energy storage technologies and their latest applications in vehicle, such as battery energy storage (BES), superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES), flywheel energy storage (FES), ultra-capacitor (UC) energy storage (UCES) and hybrid energy storage (HES). The research priorities and difficulties of each electrical energy storage technology are also presented and compared. Afterwards, the key technologies of EESS design for vehicles are presented. In addition, several conventional EESSs for vehicle applications are also analyzed; the comparison on advantages and disadvantages of various conventional EESSs is highlighted. From the rigorous review, it is observed that almost all current conventional EESSs for vehicles cannot meet a high-efficiency of power flow over the full operation range; optimization of EESS and improved control strategies will become an important research topic. Finally, this paper especially focuses on a type of linear engine, a brand new automotive propulsion system used for NEV; the guiding principle of EESS design for the new type of linear engine is proposed, an overview of a novel hybrid EESS based on hybrid power source and series–parallel switchover of UC with high efficiency under wide power flow range for the type of linear engine is presented, and advanced features of the novel hybrid EESS are highlighted.

Review of electrical energy storage system for vehicular applications

With the rapid growing number of automobiles, new energy vehicle is becoming one of approaches to mitigate the dependence of the auto industry on petroleum so as to reduce pollutant emissions. The Chinese government has promulgated a number of policies from the perspectives of industrial development, development plans, demonstration projects, fiscal subsidies and tax incentives with an aim to promote the new energy vehicle industry. This paper presents a comprehensive and critical review of the policy framework for new energy vehicles. The analysis shows that electric vehicle has been assigned a top priority in the future development of the automobile industry in China. Policy guidance and planning has played a vital role to the growth of new energy vehicle industry. However, this industry faces significant challenges related to technologies, industrial chain and social factors. Some core technologies are still in its infancy. Similarly, the market share of new energy vehicles is very small in spite of the preferential policies. The construction of supporting facilities and infrastructures has to be accelerated in order to accommodate the growing demands. There is a long way to go for the industrialization and popularization of new energy vehicles in China.

The development of new energy vehicles for a sustainable future: A review

Vehicle hybridization with fuel cell, supercapacitors and batteries by sliding mode control

A street lighting application is designed based on renewable energy sources as photovoltaic solar panel hybridized with a battery. The system is applicable for remote areas or isolated DC loads. The state space model of the whole system is presented. Control strategy has been considered to achieve permanent power supply to the load via the photovoltaic/battery on the power available from the sun. Passivity Based Control is applied to ensure the control aims and the energy management between sources. The stability proof is provided and the simulation using Matlab are concluding. A realistic scenario based on the availability of solar radiation is proposed and the energy assessment is discussed.

Hybridization of solar panel and batteries for street lighting by passivity based control

As distributed power sources seem to become increasingly popular in the near future, power electronics should be able to provide significant advantages in processing power from renewable energy sources using fast response and autonomous control. Fuel cells, photovoltaic devices and storage batteries sources produce a significant power in hybrid power structure. In this paper, the uninterruptible power source part of this multisource charger is especially considered in the point of view of its dynamic modeling, its control strategy and the energy management of the whole device. Simulation results are presented and validated by experimentation.

Hybridization of fuel cell, solar panel and batteries on the DC link for street lighting application

This paper treats the design and control of two structures with hybrid sources. The first structure uses supercapacitors, fuel cell and batteries on the DC link and the second one is similar to the first but without batteries. A fuel cell, as a slowest dynamic source in these systems (due to its auxiliaries) acts to supply the permanent energy. The supercapacitors, as high dynamic and high power density devices, compensate the intrinsic limitations in embedded sources and shave transient power peaks. The batteries module, as a high energy density device, operates for supplying energy if limitations of the power and energy sources occur. The load is a single phase DC machine connected directly in the DC bus. Our interest is focused on the comparison of the two structures. Both structures are controlled using sliding mode technique. Some results are presented and discussed.

Sliding mode control applied to fuel cell, supercapacitors and batteries for vehicle hybridizations

The classic storage element in electric vehicle consists of accumulators, which allow a relatively high autonomy, but their power capability is moderately compromised. On the other hand, the capacitors have high power capability and they can hence only be considered for applications which require little energy. There was thus a lack, in means of storage energy for high power applications, between the batteries and capacitors that supercapacitors (SCs) try to minimize. This paper deals with the conception of an embedded power source using supercapacitors which are charged by means of Unit Power Factor (UPF) electronic converter. These supercapacitors ensure the power supply of an electrical network miniature rail of 150W by using sliding mode principle control. The operating principle of this device and some simulation results obtained under Saber software and experimental results are presented.

A. Henni

Papers

Vehicle hybridization with fuel cell, supercapacitors and batteries by sliding mode control

Hybridization of solar panel and batteries for street lighting by passivity based control

Hybridization of fuel cell, solar panel and batteries on the DC link for street lighting application

Sliding mode control applied to fuel cell, supercapacitors and batteries for vehicle hybridizations

Hybrid sources for train traction: Wind generator, solar panel and supercapacitors