Anatomy of Seed Plants.

In addition to its role in water and nutrient uptake, the root system is fundamentally important because it anchors a plant to its substrate. Although a wide variety of root systems exist across different species, all plants have a primary root (derived from an embryonic radicle) and different types of lateral roots. Adventitious roots, by comparison, display the same functions as lateral roots but develop from aerial tissues. In addition, they not only develop as an adaptive response to various stresses, such as wounding or flooding, but also are a key limiting component of vegetative propagation. Lateral and adventitious roots share key elements of the genetic and hormonal regulatory networks but are subject to different regulatory mechanisms. In this review, we discuss the developmental processes that give rise to lateral and adventitious roots and highlight knowledge acquired over the past few years about the mechanisms that regulate adventitious root formation.

Adventitious Roots and Lateral Roots: Similarities and Differences

Morpho-physiological disorders in in vitro culture of plants

In spite of the importance attained by somatic embryogenesis and of the many studies that have been conducted on this developmental process, there are still many aspects that are not fully understood. Among those features, the involvement of plant hormones and plant growth regulators on deTermining the conversion of somatic onto embryogenic tissues, and on allowing progression and maturation of somatic embryos, are far away from being completely comprehended. Part of these difficulties relies on the frequent appearance of contradictory results when studying the effect of a particular stimulus over a specific stage in somatic embryogenesis. Recent progress achieved on understanding the interaction between exogenously added plant growth regulators over the concentration of endogenous hormones, together with the involvement of sensitivity of the tissues to particular hormone groups, might help clarifying the occurrence of divergent patterns in somatic embryogenesis, and in tissue culture in general. The aspects described above, emphasizing on the effect of the concentration of plant hormones and of the addition of plant growth regulators during the different phases of somatic embryogenesis, will be reviewed in this paper. Citations will be limited to review articles as much as possible and to individual articles only in those cases in which very specific or recent information is presented.

Involvement of plant hormones and plant growth regulators on in vitro somatic embryogenesis

Compared with animals, plants generally possess a high degree of developmental plasticity and display various types of tissue or organ regeneration. This regenerative capacity can be enhanced by exogenously supplied plant hormones in vitro, wherein the balance between auxin and cytokinin determines the developmental fate of regenerating organs. Accumulating evidence suggests that some forms of plant regeneration involve reprogramming of differentiated somatic cells, whereas others are induced through the activation of relatively undifferentiated cells in somatic tissues. We summarize the current understanding of how plants control various types of regeneration and discuss how developmental and environmental constraints influence these regulatory mechanisms.

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Plant regeneration: cellular origins and molecular mechanisms

Proliferation, maturation and germination of Castanea sativa Mill. Somatic embryos originated from leaf explants.

Anatomical and Biochemical Events during in vitro Rooting of Microcuttings from Juvenile and Mature Phases of Chestnut

Internodal and leaf segments from pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.) seedlings were used as explant source to induce somatic embryogenesis. Auxin treatment influenced embryogenic response, which only occurred in explants initially cultured on media containing 4 mg/l naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) and different benzyladenine (BA) concentrations. After 6 weeks of culture on induction medium, the explants were transferred to medium supplemented with 0.1 mg/l BA and 0.1 mg/l NAA, and 4 weeks later, they were subcultured in a growth-regulator-free medium, in which somatic embryos arose through indirect regeneration on the surface of a nodular callus. Somatic embryos were induced in explants of two out of four seedling provenances. The induction frequency ranged from 16% in leaf explants to 4% in internodal explants. Somatic embryos developed two cotyledons, which were translucent or opaque-white in appearance, but anomalous morphologies were also observed. Different embryogenic lines were established and maintained by repetitive embryogenesis in multiplication medium containing 0.1 mg/l BA plus 0.05 mg/l NAA. These results indicate that tissues from explants other than Q. robur zygotic embryos are able to produce embryogenic cultures.

Somatic embryogenesis from stem and leaf explants of Quercus robur L.

Vitrified shoots were produced in multiplication cultures of Castanea sativa Mill. when Murashige and Skoog mineral medium was used during successive subcultures, whereas normal shoots were obtained when Heller's macronutrient formula was used with or without addition of 1 mM (NH4)2SO4. Vitreous and normal plantlets were compared both anatomically and chemically. Xylem and sclerenchyma tissues are less differentiated and lignified in vitrified than in normal shoots. On the other hand, there is a hypertrophy in the cortical and pith parenchyma. Leaves of vitrified shoots are characterized by the lack of clear differentiation between the palisade and spongy mesophyll, where a system of large intercellular spaces develops. The cytohistological zonation of vitrified apices is characterized by the comparatively small meristem tissue in the apical dome. Phenolic content of explants, assayed by high pressure liquid chromatography, was lower in vitreous than in normal cultures. Gallic acid was identified in both types of cultures.

Anatomical and chemical studies of vitrified shoots of chestnut regenerated in vitro

Stabilized shoot cultures initiated from crown material of six adult Quercus robur L. trees and from basal epicormic shoots of a Quercus rubra L. tree showed good in vitro rooting capacity. An initial five-day dark period generally improved the rooting response but was detrimental to plantlet quality. There were clonal differences in rooting capacity. The concentration and exposure time of the indolebutyric acid (IBA) treatment were critical for root induction. In both species, best rooting efficiency was achieved by culture in medium containing 25 mg l(-1) IBA for 24 h and subsequent transfer to an auxin-free medium containing 1% activated charcoal. For all clones tested, the charcoal benefited both shoot quality and root system development, the latter being enhanced by the formation of many lateral roots. Total root system area and length, measured with a digital image analyzer, were significantly greater in medium containing charcoal than in medium lacking charcoal. Because darkening the basal part of the shoots with aluminum foil during the rooting phase only caused a small increase in rooting, we conclude that the large effect of charcoal on rooting was the result of adsorption of inhibitory compounds from the medium or the explant or both, rather than of basal darkening. Other factors affecting the rooting response of Q. robur were: (a) the position on the tree of the material from which cultures were initiated (the topophysical effect); and (b) shoot quality. Recycling the same horizontally placed explant on multiplication medium allowed three successive crops of shoots to be obtained, and rootability was typically maintained from crop to crop.

A. M. Vieitez

Papers

Proliferation, maturation and germination of Castanea sativa Mill. Somatic embryos originated from leaf explants.

Anatomical and Biochemical Events during in vitro Rooting of Microcuttings from Juvenile and Mature Phases of Chestnut

Somatic embryogenesis from stem and leaf explants of Quercus robur L.

Anatomical and chemical studies of vitrified shoots of chestnut regenerated in vitro

Requirements for in vitro rooting of Quercus robur and Q. rubra shoots derived from mature trees.