Cross-study differences in the contributions of work attitudes to the turnover process led us to (a) estimate the six relations among job satisfaction, organizational commitment, turnover intention/withdrawal cognitions, and turnover using meta-analysis; (b) assess the effects of several psychometric moderators on those relations; and (c) compare the influences of satisfaction and commitment in the turnover process by applying path analysis to the meta-analytic correlations. Based on aggregations involving a total of 178 independent samples from 155 studies, results showed that (a) satisfaction and commitment each contribute independently to the prediction of intention/cognitions; (b) intention/cognitions are predicted more strongly by satisfaction than by commitment; (c) intention/cognitions mediate nearly all of the attitu-dinal linkage with turnover; and (d) attitudinal contributions to the turnover process vary with the use of single- versus multi-item scales, the 9- versus 15-item version of the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire, and turnover intention versus withdrawal cognition scales.

Job satisfaction, organizational commitment, turnover intention, and turnover: Path analyses based on meta-analytic findings.

: A review of both laboratory and field studies on the effect of setting goals when learning or performing a task found that specific, challenging goals led more often to higher performance than easy goals, 'do your best' goals or no goals. This is one of the most robust and replicable findings in the psychological literature, with 90% of the studies showing positive or partially positive results. The main mechanisms by which goals affect performance are by directing attention, mobilizing effort, increasing persistence, and motivating strategy development. Goal setting is most likely to improve task performance when the goals are specific and sufficiently challenging, when the subjects have sufficient ability (and ability differences are controlled), when feedback is provided to show progress in relation to the goal, when rewards such as money are given for goal attainment, when the exerimenter manager is supportive, and when the assigned goals are actually accepted by the individual. No reliable individual differences have emerged in goal setting studies, probably because goals were typically assigned rather than self-set. Need for achievement and self esteem may be the most promising individual difference variables. (Author)

https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-2909.90.1.125

Goal setting and task performance: 1969–1980.

The results of the current study supported the general hypothesis that individuals who were different from others in a social unit on demographic attributes reported lower organizational attachment...

Being different: Relational demography and organizational attachment.

Research on employee turnover since the Porter and Steers analysis of the literature reveals that age, tenure, overall satisfaction, job content, intentions to remain on the job, and commitment are consistently and negatively related to turnover. Generally, however, less than 20% of the variance in turnover is explained. Lack of a clear conceptual model, failure to consider available job alternatives, insufficient multivariate research, and infrequent longitudinal studies are identified as factors precluding a better understanding of the psychology of the employee turnover process. A conceptual model is presented that suggests a need to distinguish between satisfaction (present oriented) and attraction/expected utility (future oriented) for both the present role and alternative roles, a need to consider nonwork values and nonwork consequences of turnover behavior as well as contractual constraints, and a potential mechanism for integrating aggregate-level research findings into an individual-le vel model of the turnover process. Employee withdrawal, in the form of turnover, has sustained the interest of personnel researchers, behavioral scientists, and management practitioners. At the macro level, economists and personnel researchers have demonstrated the relationship between turnover rates and the aggregate level of economic activity, employment levels, and vacancy levels (see, e.g., Armknecht & Early, 1972; Forrest, Cummings, & Johnson, 1977; Price, 1977; Woodward, 1975-1976). At the micro level, behavioral research has established a consistent, although generally weak, correlation between job dissatisfaction and turnover (Brayfield & Crockett, 19SS; Locke, 1976; Porter & Steers, 1973; Vroom, 1964; Herzberg, Mausner, Peterson, & Capwell,

Review and Conceptual Analysis of the Employee Turnover Process

Studies of employee turnover are reviewed using meta-analytic techniques. The findings indicate that almost all of the 26 variables studied relate to turnover. The findings also indicate that study variables including population, nationality, and industry moderate relationships between many of the variables and turnover. It is suggested that future research on employee turnover: (1) report study variables, (2) continue model testing rather than simply correlating variables with turnover, and (3) incorporate study variables into future models.

Employee Turnover: A Meta-Analysis and Review with Implications for Research

To evaluate a heuristic model of employee turnover, survey data were collected from 203 hospital employees. The questionnaire included measures of general and job facet satisfaction, thoughts about quitting, the intention to quit, the perceived probability of finding another job, and biographical in

http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/apl/63/4/408.pdf

A. T. Hollingsworth

Papers

An evaluation of precursors of hospital employee turnover.