Machine Learning is the study of methods for programming computers to learn. Computers are applied to a wide range of tasks, and for most of these it is relatively easy for programmers to design and implement the necessary software. However, there are many tasks for which this is difficult or impossible. These can be divided into four general categories. First, there are problems for which there exist no human experts. For example, in modern automated manufacturing facilities, there is a need to predict machine failures before they occur by analyzing sensor readings. Because the machines are new, there are no human experts who can be interviewed by a programmer to provide the knowledge necessary to build a computer system. A machine learning system can study recorded data and subsequent machine failures and learn prediction rules. Second, there are problems where human experts exist, but where they are unable to explain their expertise. This is the case in many perceptual tasks, such as speech recognition, hand-writing recognition, and natural language understanding. Virtually all humans exhibit expert-level abilities on these tasks, but none of them can describe the detailed steps that they follow as they perform them. Fortunately, humans can provide machines with examples of the inputs and correct outputs for these tasks, so machine learning algorithms can learn to map the inputs to the outputs. Third, there are problems where phenomena are changing rapidly. In finance, for example, people would like to predict the future behavior of the stock market, of consumer purchases, or of exchange rates. These behaviors change frequently, so that even if a programmer could construct a good predictive computer program, it would need to be rewritten frequently. A learning program can relieve the programmer of this burden by constantly modifying and tuning a set of learned prediction rules. Fourth, there are applications that need to be customized for each computer user separately. Consider, for example, a program to filter unwanted electronic mail messages. Different users will need different filters. It is unreasonable to expect each user to program his or her own rules, and it is infeasible to provide every user with a software engineer to keep the rules up-to-date. A machine learning system can learn which mail messages the user rejects and maintain the filtering rules automatically. Machine learning addresses many of the same research questions as the fields of statistics, data mining, and psychology, but with differences of emphasis. Statistics focuses on understanding the phenomena that have generated the data, often with the goal of testing different hypotheses about those phenomena. Data mining seeks to find patterns in the data that are understandable by people. Psychological studies of human learning aspire to understand the mechanisms underlying the various learning behaviors exhibited by people (concept learning, skill acquisition, strategy change, etc.).

Machine learning

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Statistical Parametric Mapping The Analysis Of Functional Brain Images

on to develop full blown Parkinson's disease with rigidity and bradykinesia in the next few years. For those interested in the mechanisms of tremor, there are the customary authoritative reviews by Llinas, De Long, Lamarre, Rothwell and Deuschl, but uncertainty remains with respect to the relative importance of central autonomous generators and instability of peripheral reflex loops. Well written chapters are also included on primary orthostatic tremor and its relationship to essential tremor, writing tremor, neuropathic tremor, midbrain tremor and the increasingly acknowledged psychogenic tremors. Complex interrelationship between dystonia and postural tremor is also covered in depth. This cornucopia will be coveted and dipped into by those neurologists with a special interest in abnormal movement disorders, but who would not consider themselves to have a research interest in tremor. However, for the majority of clinicians involved in the hurly burly of clinical practice, I suspect that regrettably time and cost factors will conspire together to keep this excellent book out of reach. ANDREW LEES

https://jnnp.bmj.com/content/jnnp/59/3/346.1.full.pdf

Contributions to Neuropsychological Assessment

A compendium of neuropsychological tests: administration, norms, and commentary

第１回 Evidence-based Cognitive Rehabilitation：Updated Review of the Literature from 2003 Through 2008

Introduccion. Los seres humanos somos capaces de hacer frente a situaciones novedosas y de adaptarnos a los cambios de forma flexible. Las habilidades cognitivas que permiten al individuo controlar y regular sus comportamientos reciben el nombre de funciones ejecutivas. Anatomicamente, las funciones ejecutivas dependen de un sistema neuronal distribuido, en el cual el cortex prefrontal desempena un papel destacado. Datos recientes apuntan a que diferentes regiones del cortex prefrontal pueden mediar en distintos aspectos implicados en el funcionamiento ejecutivo. Desarrollo. El proposito de este articulo es realizar una revision de los principales modelos de funcionamiento ejecutivo con el fin de arrojar luz sobre este controvertido constructo. Los modelos planteados realizan aproximaciones a una misma realidad desde perspectivas diferentes, obviando, en algunos casos, partes de esta realidad. En esta primera parte, se revisan los modelos y teorias de la informacion contextual, del acontecimiento complejo estructurado, de memoria de trabajo, de codificacion adaptativa, la teoria integradora de Miller y Cohen, y los modelos factoriales de control ejecutivo. Conclusiones. No disponemos de un modelo unico que nos permita explicar como procesos cognitivos especificos se controlan y coordinan durante la ejecucion de actividades cognitivas complejas. No obstante, existe cierto consenso en aceptar que el constructo funciones ejecutivas no constituye un concepto unitario, sino la combinacion de diversos procesos cognitivos que se combinan de multiples maneras para operar en diferentes situaciones.

Modelos de funciones y control ejecutivo (II)

Introduccion. Los primeros cinco anos de vida son criticos en el desarrollo de las funciones ejecutivas. Los cambios observados en la capacidad y competencia ejecutiva parecen guardar una estrecha relacion con los procesos madurativos de la corteza prefrontal. Desarrollo. Las pruebas obtenidas en las tres ultimas decadas indican que el funcionamiento ejecutivo inicia su desarrollo antes de lo que previamente se pensaba. En edades tempranas ya es posible observar como emergen diversas capacidades cognitivas que posteriormente constituiran lo que conocemos como funciones ejecutivas. El proposito de este articulo es describir como se desarrollan las funciones ejecutivas a lo largo de los primeros cinco anos de vida y su relacion con la maduracion de la corteza prefrontal. Conclusiones. El desarrollo de las funciones ejecutivas implica el desarrollo de una serie de capacidades cognitivas que han de permitir al nino mantener informacion, manipularla y actuar en funcion de esta; autorregular su conducta, logrando actuar de forma reflexiva y no impulsiva; y adaptar su comportamiento a los cambios que pueden producirse en el entorno. Alteraciones tempranas en el desarrollo ejecutivo limitan de forma dramatica la capacidad del nino para hacer frente a situaciones novedosas, asi como para adaptarse a los cambios de manera flexible.

Maduración de la corteza prefrontal y desarrollo de las funciones ejecutivas durante los primeros cinco años de vida

Cognitive rehabilitation aims to remediate or alleviate the cognitive deficits appearing after an episode of acquired brain injury (ABI). The purpose of this work is to describe the telerehabilitation platform called Guttmann Neuropersonal Trainer (GNPT) which provides new strategies for cognitive rehabilitation, improving efficiency and access to treatments, and to increase knowledge generation from the process. A cognitive rehabilitation process has been modeled to design and develop the system, which allows neuropsychologists to configure and schedule rehabilitation sessions, consisting of set of personalized computerized cognitive exercises grounded on neuroscience and plasticity principles. It provides remote continuous monitoring of patient's performance, by an asynchronous communication strategy. An automatic knowledge extraction method has been used to implement a decision support system, improving treatment customization. GNPT has been implemented in 27 rehabilitation centers and in 83 patients’ homes, facilitating the access to the treatment. In total, 1660 patients have been treated. Usability and cost analysis methodologies have been applied to measure the efficiency in real clinical environments. The usability evaluation reveals a system usability score higher than 70 for all target users. The cost efficiency study results show a relation of 1–20 compared to face-to-face rehabilitation. GNPT enables brain-damaged patients to continue and further extend rehabilitation beyond the hospital, improving the efficiency of the rehabilitation process. It allows customized therapeutic plans, providing information to further development of clinical practice guidelines.

/pdf/improving-brain-injury-cognitive-rehabilitation-by-4ga28af4sg.pdf

Improving Brain Injury Cognitive Rehabilitation by Personalized Telerehabilitation Services: Guttmann Neuropersonal Trainer

Introduccion. Las consecuencias del dano cerebral adquirido incluyen alteraciones en el funcionamiento cognitivo, emocional y conductual de las personas afectadas. La neuropsicologia proporciona tecnicas que permiten tratar dichas alteraciones; de ahi la importancia de establecer cuales, de entre todas las herramientas disponibles, son las mas eficaces para este objetivo. Desarrollo. El presente articulo revisa los estudios existentes sobre efectividad de la rehabilitacion neuropsicologica, centrandose en aquellas areas y procesos cognitivos alterados con mas frecuencia. El fin ultimo del articulo es servir de guia y orientar la rehabilitacion neuropsicologica de estos pacientes a partir de las evidencias mas solidas existentes en la literatura, especialmente en procesos como la atencion y la heminegligencia, la memoria y el lenguaje. Conclusion. Existen evidencias suficientes para recomendar la rehabilitacion neuropsicologica de los procesos antes senalados en poblacion con dano cerebral adquirido.

Efectividad de la rehabilitación neuropsicológica en el daño cerebral adquirido (I): atención, velocidad de procesamiento, memoria y lenguaje

Primary objective: To examine the relationship between traditional executive function measures and everyday competence in Spanish-speaking individuals with moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury (TBI).Methods and procedures: Thirty-two TBI patients (24 men, eight women) with an age range of 17–59 years (mean age = 30.73 years; SD = 13.34) were administered a battery of performance-based executive function measures. Such measures included the Trail Making Test part B, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Stroop Colour Word Interference Test, Controlled Oral Word Association Test and Letter-Number Sequencing. Behavioural manifestations of executive deficits were assessed by the Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Adult version (BRIEF-A). Patient's everyday functioning was examined with the Patient Competency Rating Scale (PCRS).Main outcomes and results: Traditional performance-based executive measures correlated significantly, although moderately, with the PCRS; this relationship was more significa...

Alberto García-Molina

Papers

Modelos de funciones y control ejecutivo (II)

Maduración de la corteza prefrontal y desarrollo de las funciones ejecutivas durante los primeros cinco años de vida

Improving Brain Injury Cognitive Rehabilitation by Personalized Telerehabilitation Services: Guttmann Neuropersonal Trainer

Efectividad de la rehabilitación neuropsicológica en el daño cerebral adquirido (I): atención, velocidad de procesamiento, memoria y lenguaje

Do traditional executive measures tell us anything about daily-life functioning after traumatic brain injury in Spanish-speaking individuals?