Three computable general equilibrium models are used to estimate the economic implications of a stylized version of EU climate policy. If implemented at the lowest possible cost, the 20% emissions reduction would lead to a welfare loss of 0.5-2.0% by 2020. Second-best policies increase costs. A policy with two carbon prices (one for the ETS, one for the non-ETS) could increase costs by up to 50%. A policy with 28 carbon prices (one for the ETS, one each for each Member State) could increase costs by another 40%. The renewables standard could raise the costs of emissions reduction by 90%. Overall, the inefficiencies in policy lead to a cost that is 100-125% too high. The models differ greatly in the detail of their results. The ETS/non-ETS split may have a negligible impact on welfare, while the renewables standard may even improve welfare. The models agree, however, that the distortions introduced by total EU package imply a substantial welfare loss over and above the costs needed to meet the climate target. The marginal, total and excess costs reported here are notably higher than those in the impact assessment of the European Commission.

THE EU 20/20/2020 TARGETS: AN OVERVIEW OF THE EMF22 ASSESSMENT. ESRI WP325. October 2009

Emissions of GHG from the transport sector and how to reduce them are major challenges for policy makers The purpose of this paper is to analyse the level of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from ships while in port based on annual data from Port of Gothenburg, Port of Long Beach, Port of Osaka and Sydney Ports Port call statistics including IMO number, ship name, berth number and time spent at berth for each ship call, were provided by each participating port The IMO numbers were used to match each port call to ship specifications from the IHS database Sea-web All data were analysed with a model developed by the IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute for the purpose of quantifying GHG emissions (as CO2-equivalent) from ships in the port area Emissions from five operational modes are summed in order to account for ship operations in the different traffic areas The model estimates total GHG emissions of 150,000, 240,000, 97,000, and 95,000 tonnes CO2 equivalents per year for Gothenburg, Long Beach, Osaka, and Sydney, respectively Four important emission-reduction measures are discussed: reduced speed in fairway channels, on-shore power supply, reduced turnaround time at berth and alternative fuels It is argued that the potential to reduce emissions in a port area depends on how often a ship revisits a port: there it in general is easier to implement measures for high-frequent liners Ships that call 10 times or less contribute significantly to emissions in all ports

Greenhouse gas emissions from ships in ports – Case studies in four continents

Shore Side Electricity in Europe: Potential and environmental benefits

Environmental problems that seriously affect both natural systems and social development of human beings have drawn extensive attention from governing authorities all around the world, and become an urgent issue to be addressed. Ports play a significant role in the international shipping which inevitably influence the global environment. Thus, the concept of green port is developed to mitigate the negative impacts of inappropriate port operations on environment. This paper analyzes the current status of green port development worldwide. An evaluation model for quantitative measurement of green port development is established based on the Drivers, Pressures, States, Impacts and Responses (DPSIR) framework. The weight of each index composing the evaluation model is calculated through an analytical hierarchy process method, and the evaluation results of the investigated ports with respect to each index are aggregated using an evidential reasoning approach. The evaluation model is further demonstrated through a comparative analysis of five major ports in China. The novel model developed along with the methods applied in this paper can provide significant insights for the comparative evaluation on the development of green ports in other countries and/or regions, as well as a powerful tool to conduct self-assessment of green port development. © 2017 Elsevier Ltd.

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A novel model for the quantitative evaluation of green port development - A case study of major ports in China

This paper presents an estimation and analysis of ship exhaust emissions and their externalities in the popular cruise destinations of Dubrovnik (Croatia) and Kotor (Montenegro) along the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. To this extent, the recent record (2012–2014) of cruise ships calling at these ports is used to model and estimate the ship exhaust emission inventories and externalities within the associated bays and ports. The results indicate that cruise ship traffic produces continuously increasing air pollution in both ports over recent years. More importantly, however, the analysis of the ship operating characteristics reveals that for any given ship traffic involving specific vessels using marine fuel of a given quality, the presence of other factors (e.g. berth availability, berth accessibility etc) can also influence the ship emission levels. This is particularly evident in the case of the port of Kotor where berth space insufficiency dictates the need for ship anchorage thus leading to increased air pollution and costs of associated damage. The application and results of the aforementioned ship activity-based methodology to the ports of Dubrovnik and Kotor improves our understanding of ship emissions in cruise bays and ports, and contributes toward the implementation of port policies for the effective control of air quality in such environmentally sensitive locations.

Ship emissions and their externalities in cruise ports

Detailed NO x , SO 2 and PM 25 emissions have been estimated for cruise ships in the five busiest Greek ports (ie Piraeus, Santorini, Mykonos, Corfu and Katakolo) for year 2013 The emissions were analyzed in terms of gas species, seasonality and activity The total in-port inventory of cruise shipping accounted to 27427 tons: with NO x being dominant (18875 tons), followed by SO 2 and PM 25 (7609 and 943 tons respectively) Emissions during hotelling corresponded to 885% of total and have significantly outweighed those produced during ships’ maneuvering activities (115% of total) Seasonality was found to play a major role, as summer emissions and associated impacts were significantly augmented The anticipated health impacts of ship emissions can reach to €243 million or to €53 per passenger proving the necessity of control of the emissions produced by cruise ships in port cities or policy and measures towards a more efficient cruise industry

Evaluating the social cost of cruise ships air emissions in major ports of Greece

Evaluation of cruise ships emissions in the Mediterranean basin: The case of Greek ports

Mitigating Shipping Emissions in European Ports

The transportation sector is a constantly growing source of greenhouse gas emissions, and its inclusion in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU-ETS) has become inevitable, aiming to mitigate climate change effects. This chapter summarises the operation of the scheme, the accompanying legal framework, the induced implications, and the necessary requirements for the inclusion of transportation sub-sectors in the scheme. The implementation of the EU-ETS in aviation, shipping, and road transport is described, while details on the emissions trading and allowances allocation are provided. The processes of monitoring, reporting, and verification of emissions are reported along with the energy challenges, environmental, and financial impacts of the anticipated market based measures.

Emissions Trading Schemes in the Transportation Sector

Transport is responsible for around a quarter of EU greenhouse gas emissions making it the second biggest greenhouse gas emitting sector after energy. More than two thirds of transport-related greenhouse gas emissions are from road transport. However, there are also significant emissions from the aviation and maritime sectors and these sectors are experiencing the fastest growth in emissions.

Alexandra Maragkogianni

Papers

Evaluating the social cost of cruise ships air emissions in major ports of Greece

Evaluation of cruise ships emissions in the Mediterranean basin: The case of Greek ports

Mitigating Shipping Emissions in European Ports

Emissions Trading Schemes in the Transportation Sector

Shipping Industry and Induced Air Pollution