This paper describes and reviews the theory of planned behavior (TPB). The focus is on evidence supporting the further extension of the TPB in various ways. Empirical and theoretical evidence to support the addition of 6 variables to the TPB is reviewed: belief salience measures, past behaviodhabit, perceived behavioral control (PBC) vs. selfefficacy, moral norms, self-identity, and affective beliefs. In each case there appears to be growing empirical evidence to support their addition to the TPB and some understanding of the processes by which they may be related to other TPB variables, intentions, and behavior. Two avenues for expansion of the TPB are presented. First, the possibility of incorporating the TPB into a dual-process model of attitude-behavior relationships is reviewed. Second, the expansion of the TPB to include consideration of the volitional processes determining how goal intentions may lead to goal achievement is discussed.

Extending the Theory of Planned Behavior: A Review and Avenues for Further Research

The chapter re-examines, in light of recent developments, the reasoned action perspective inherent in the expectancy-value model of attitude and in the theory of planned behavior. According to this perspective, people's attitudes follow spontaneously and consistently from beliefs accessible in memory and then guide corresponding behavior. The number and types of beliefs that are accessible vary with motivation and ability to process attitude-relevant information and with the context. Based on these considerations, it is shown that the reasoned action perspective is compatible with evidence for automatic processes in the activation of attitudes and behavior, and with the finding that attitudes can vary with the context in which they are expressed. Implications for the attitude-behavior relation and for the role of habit in human behavior are discussed.

Attitudes and the Attitude-Behavior Relation: Reasoned and Automatic Processes

Following concerns in the literature about the conceptualization and operationalization of the perceived behavioral control (PBC) construct within the Theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985, 1991), 2 studies were conducted to examine whether questionnaire items explicitly assessing perceived difficulty and perceived control issues would attract a different pattern of responses. In applications of the theory of planned behavior to the reduction of red meat consumption and the reduction of potato chip (French fries) consumption, Principal Components Analysis showed that items reflecting perceived difficulty and items reflecting perceived control loaded onto different components. Furthermore, measures of perceived difficulty and not measures of perceived control contributed independent predictive effects in multiple regressions of respondents' behavioral intentions to make the dietary changes.

The dimensional structure of the perceived behavioral control construct.

Consumer Attitudes and Behavior

A comparison of perceived and geographic access to predict urban park use

Sets of 16 beliefs about the consequences of each of 6 leisure activities were selected in a pilot study by means of free elicitation. The beliefs varied in salience (salient vs. nonsalient), valence (positive vs. negative), and type (instrumental vs. effective). In the main study, 69 college students expressed their agreements with each belief, evaluated the consequences involved in the beliefs, and rated each leisure activity on 4 evaluative scales as a standard measure of attitude. The latencies of these responses were used to assess accessibilities of beliefs and attitudes in an effort to quantify degree of salience. Accessibility of beliefs was found to increase significantly with frequency of elicitation in the pilot study (salience) and with the judged favorability of the consequences. Salience was further found to be related to degree and extremity of agreement. Accessibility was also found to moderate the correlation between beliefs and attitudes posited in the expectancy-value model of attitude. The correlation between a given belief and the direct attitude measure increased with the belief's accessibility, and the correlation between a measure of attitude based on the set of salient beliefs and the standard attitude measures increased with the accessibility of the attitude. Implications for the identification and measurement of perceived benefits and costs of leisure are discussed.

Alton J. Nichols

Papers

Identifying Salient Beliefs About Leisure Activities: Frequency of Elicitation Versus Response Latency1