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Global Positioning System Theory And Practice

In recent years, wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have grown dramatically and made a great progress in many applications. But having limited life, batteries, as the power sources of wireless sensor nodes, have restricted the development and application of WSNs which often requires a very long lifespan for better performance. In order to make the WSNs prevalent in our lives, an alternative energy source is required. Environmental energy is an attractive power source, and it provides an approach to make the sensor nodes self-powered with the possibility of an almost infinite lifetime. The goal of this survey is to present a comprehensive review of the recent literature on the various possible energy harvesting technologies from ambient environment for WSNs.

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Harvesting Ambient Environmental Energy for Wireless Sensor Networks: A Survey

Scheduling different types of packets, such as real-time and non-real-time data packets, at sensor nodes with resource constraints in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) is of vital importance to reduce sensors' energy consumptions and end-to-end data transmission delays. Most of the existing packet-scheduling mechanisms of WSN use First Come First Served (FCFS), non-preemptive priority and preemptive priority scheduling algorithms. These algorithms incur a high processing overhead and long end-to-end data transmission delay due to the FCFS concept, starvation of high priority real-time data packets due to the transmission of a large data packet in non-preemptive priority scheduling, starvation of non-real-time data packets due to the probable continuous arrival of real-time data in preemptive priority scheduling, and improper allocation of data packets to queues in multilevel queue scheduling algorithms. Moreover, these algorithms are not dynamic to the changing requirements of WSN applications since their scheduling policies are predetermined. In this paper, we propose a Dynamic Multilevel Priority (DMP) packet scheduling scheme. In the proposed scheme, each node, except those at the last level of the virtual hierarchy in the zone-based topology of WSN, has three levels of priority queues. Real-time packets are placed into the highest-priority queue and can preempt data packets in other queues. Non-real-time packets are placed into two other queues based on a certain threshold of their estimated processing time. Leaf nodes have two queues for real-time and non-real-time data packets since they do not receive data from other nodes and thus, reduce end-to-end delay. We evaluate the performance of the proposed DMP packet scheduling scheme through simulations for real-time and non-real-time data. Simulation results illustrate that the DMP packet scheduling scheme outperforms conventional schemes in terms of average data waiting time and end-to-end delay.

Dynamic Multilevel Priority Packet Scheduling Scheme for Wireless Sensor Network

A technical review on semi-continuous and continuous pyrolysis process of biomass to bio-oil

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) are gaining popularity as a flexible and economical alternative to field-bus installations for monitoring and control applications. For mission-critical applications, communication networks must provide end-to-end reliability guarantees, posing substantial challenges for WSN. Reliability can be improved by redundancy, and is often addressed on the MAC layer by re-submission of lost packets, usually applying slotted scheduling. Recently, researchers have proposed a strategy to optimally improve the reliability of a given schedule by repeating the most rewarding slots in a schedule incrementally until a deadline. This Incrementer can be used with most scheduling algorithms but has scalability issues which narrows its usability to offline calculations of schedules, for networks that are rather static. In this paper, we introduce SchedEx, a generic heuristic scheduling algorithm extension which guarantees a user-defined end-to-end reliability. SchedEx produces competitive schedules to the existing approach, and it does that consistently more than an order of magnitude faster. The harsher the end-to-end reliability demand of the network, the better SchedEx performs compared to the Incrementer. We further show that SchedEx has a more evenly distributed improvement impact on the scheduling algorithms, whereas the Incrementer favors schedules created by certain scheduling algorithms.

End-to-End Reliability-aware Scheduling for Wireless Sensor Networks

Clock synchronization in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) assures that sensor nodes have the same reference clock time. This is necessary not only for various WSN applications but also for many system level protocols for WSNs such as MAC protocols, and protocols for sleep scheduling of sensor nodes. Clock value of a node at a particular instant of time depends on its initial value and the frequency of the crystal oscillator used in the sensor node. The frequency of the crystal oscillator varies from node to node, and may also change over time depending upon many factors like temperature, humidity, etc. As a result, clock values of different sensor nodes diverge from each other and also from the real time clock, and hence, there is a requirement for clock synchronization in WSNs. Consequently, many clock synchronization protocols for WSNs have been proposed in the recent past. These protocols differ from each other considerably, and so, there is a need to understand them using a common platform. Towards this goal, this survey paper categorizes the features of clock synchronization protocols for WSNs into three types, viz. structural features, technical features, and global objective features. Each of these categories has different options to further segregate the features for better understanding. The features of clock synchronization protocols that have been used in this survey include all the features which have been used in existing surveys as well as new features such as how the clock value is propagated, when the clock value is propagated, and when the physical clock is updated, which are required for better understanding of the clock synchronization protocols in WSNs in a systematic way. This paper also gives a brief description of a few basic clock synchronization protocols for WSNs, and shows how these protocols fit into the above classification criteria. In addition, the recent clock synchronization protocols for WSNs, which are based on the above basic clock synchronization protocols, are also given alongside the corresponding basic clock synchronization protocols. Indeed, the proposed model for characterizing the clock synchronization protocols in WSNs can be used not only for analyzing the existing protocols but also for designing new clock synchronization protocols.

A model for the classification and survey of clock synchronization protocols in WSNs

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) consist of a large number of small and low cost sensor nodes powered by small batteries and equipped with various sensing devices. Usually, for many applications, once a WSN is deployed, probably in an inhospitable terrain, it is expected to gather the required data for quite some time, say for years. Since each sensor node has limited energy, these nodes are usually put to sleep to conserve energy, and this helps to prolong the network lifetime. There are two major approaches to sleep scheduling of sensor nodes, viz. (i) random (ii) synchronized. Any sleep scheduling scheme has to ensure that data can always be routed from source to sink. In this paper, we propose a novel approach for sleep scheduling of sensor nodes using a tree and an energy aware routing protocol which is integrated with the proposed sleep scheduling scheme. The tree is rooted at the sink node. The internal nodes of the tree remain awake and the leaf nodes are made to sleep. This provides an assured path from any node to the sink node. The tree is periodically reconstructed considering the remaining energy of each node with a view to balance energy consumption of nodes, and remove any failed nodes from the tree. The proposed approach also considerably reduces average energy consumption rate of each node as we are able to put more number of nodes to sleep in comparison to other approaches. Additional fault-tolerance is provided by keeping two paths from each node towards the sink. Extensive simulation studies of the proposed routing protocol has been carried out using Castalia simulator, and its performance has been compared with that of a routing protocol, called GSP, which incorporates sleep scheduling using random approach. The simulation results show that the proposed approach has longer network lifetime in comparison to that provided by GSP, and the energy consumption of nodes is also balanced.

An Energy Aware Routing Protocol with Sleep Scheduling for Wireless Sensor Networks

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have accelerated tremendous research efforts with an aim to maximize the lifetime of battery-powered sensor nodes and, by extension, the overall network lifetime. With an objective to prolong the lifetime of WSN, reducing energy consumption turns out to be the most crucial factors for almost all WSN protocols, particularly for the MAC protocol that directly ensures the state of the main energy consumption component, i.e., the radio module. In order to minimize energy consumption, RMAC and HEMAC protocols allow a node to transmit data packets for multi-hop WSN in a single duty-cycle. At the same time, each node remains in low power sleep mode and wakes up periodically to sense for channel activities, i.e., data transmission. But, in token based MAC protocol, depending on the token availability, there is always an end-to-end communication between source and sink one at a time, still it would have high latency time. Hence, different MAC protocols for WSN always have greater challenges towards energy conservation, maintaining low latency time, and fault-tolerant to node failure. To overcome these problems, we present an energy efficient multi-token based MAC protocol that not only extend the network lifetime and maintain the network connectivity but also achieve congestion less, fault-tolerant and reliable data transmission. Simulation studies of the proposed MAC protocol have been carried out using Castalia simulator, and its performance has been compared with that of SMAC, RMAC, and token based MAC protocol. Simulation results also show that the proposed approach has lower energy consumption and higher delivery ratio.

Reliable Energy Aware Multi-token Based MAC Protocol for WSN

In this paper we report on the outcomes of a research and demonstration project on human intrusion detection in a large secure space using an ad hoc wireless sensor network. This project has been ∗SmartDetect is a research and demonstration project funded by the ERI (the following are in alphabetical order within category) Faculty Investigators: Bharadwaj Amrutur, G.K. Ananthasuresh, Navakanta Bhat, R.C. Hansdah, Malati Hegde, Joy Kuri, Vinod Sharma, Y.N. Srikant, Rajesh Sundaresan; Project Staff: Tarun Agarwal, S.V.R. Anand, Pallav Bose, Vijay Dewangan, Shalini Keshavamurthy, A.V. Krishna, Pavan Kumar, Sharath Kumar, D. Manjunath, Sundeep Patil, Poornima V.L., K. Aditya Prasad, Santosh Ramanathan, Anurag Ranjan, Subathra Sampath, Jeena Sebastian, Vishwas Vasuki; Students: Pranav Agrawal, Sahebrao Sidram Baiger, Vinod Kumar Chouhan, Taposh Banerjee, Satyam Dwivedi, Abhishek Gupta, Neeraj Kumar, Prachee Jindal, Premkumar Karumbu, Sambuddha Khan, Girish Krishnan, Syam Krishnan, Chaitanya U. Kshirasagar, K.P. Naveen, Mohan Rathod, Deepak Ravi, U. Raviteja, R. Abu Sajana, Ramanathan Subramanian, Thejas, Amulya Ratna Swain, Lalitha Vadlamani, Leena Zacharias. a unique experience in collaborative research, involving ten investigators (with expertise in areas such as sensors, circuits, computer systems, communication and networking, signal processing and security) to execute a large funded project that spanned three to four years. In this paper we report on the specific engineering solution that was developed: the various architectural choices and the associated specific designs. In addition to developing a demonstrable system, the various problems that arose have given rise to a large amount of basic research in areas such as geographical packet routing, distributed statistical detection, sensors and associated circuits, a low power adaptive micro-radio, and power optimising embedded systems software. We provide an overview of the research results obtained.

Wireless sensor networks for human intruder detection

Recent advances in the development of wireless sensor networks(WSNs) have considerably increased the interest in their applications for a wide range of problems such as environmental monitoring, target tracking, habitat monitoring etc. Many of these applications and the wireless sensor network(WSN) itself require that the clocks of the sensor nodes are synchronized with certain accuracy. Existing approaches to clock synchronization in WSNs are mostly hierarchical in nature. A hierarchical structure is usually difficult to maintain, and it results in longer synchronization phase and reduced synchronization accuracy for large WSNs. Traditional internal clock synchronization protocols that have been proposed for distributed systems assume that the network is complete, i.e., every node can communicate with every other node directly. But WSNs, in general, are not a complete network, and hence, traditional internal clock synchronization protocols are not directly suitable for WSNs. In this paper, we propose a novel peer-to-peer based fully distributed internal clock synchronization protocol for wireless sensor networks which are not a complete network. We have analyzed our protocol for bounds on synchronization error, and shown that the synchronization error is always upper bounded. We have carried out extensive simulation studies using Castalia simulator (up to 1000 nodes) to evaluate the performance of our protocol and also compared its performance with that of TPSN. The accuracy achieved is consistently better than that of TPSN, and the energy consumption per node is considerably less than that of TPSN except for small WSNs requiring higher accuracy. We have also implemented our protocol using TinyOS in a WSN consisting of a few TelosB motes. The experimental results from the above implementation of our protocol show that the synchronization error is bounded and the accuracy is within a few tics of the external clock.

Amulya Ratna Swain

Papers

A model for the classification and survey of clock synchronization protocols in WSNs

An Energy Aware Routing Protocol with Sleep Scheduling for Wireless Sensor Networks

Reliable Energy Aware Multi-token Based MAC Protocol for WSN

Wireless sensor networks for human intruder detection

An energy efficient and Fault-Tolerant Clock Synchronization Protocol for wireless sensor networks