A technique to reduce metallic implant artifacts on computed tomography scans is presented. The implant boundaries are determined semiautomatically; the missing projection data are replaced by linear interpolation. The complete procedure requires 1-2 minutes per scan. Images with greatly improved quality were obtained in the presence of surgical clips and pelvic implants; success is limited in highly structured regions, such as the facial skull.

Reduction of CT artifacts caused by metallic implants.

High Resolution X-ray Computed Tomography: An Emerging Tool for Small Animal Cancer Research

A new iterative maximum-likelihood reconstruction algorithm for X-ray computed tomography is presented. The algorithm prevents beam hardening artifacts by incorporating a polychromatic acquisition model. The continuous spectrum of the X-ray tube is modeled as a number of discrete energies. The energy dependence of the attenuation is taken into account by decomposing the linear attenuation coefficient into a photoelectric component and a Compton scatter component. The relative weight of these components is constrained based on prior material assumptions. Excellent results are obtained for simulations and for phantom measurements. Beam-hardening artifacts are effectively eliminated. The relation with existing algorithms is discussed. The results confirm that improving the acquisition model assumed by the reconstruction algorithm results in reduced artifacts. Preliminary results indicate that metal artifact reduction is a very promising application for this new algorithm.

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An iterative maximum-likelihood polychromatic algorithm for CT

This paper explores the potential of high-resolution computed tomography (CT) as a morphometric tool in paleoanthropology. The accuracy of linear measurements of enamel thickness and cortical bone thickness taken from CT scans is evaluated by making comparison with measurements taken directly from physical sections. The measurements of cortical bone are taken on extant and fossil specimens with and without attached matrix, and the dental specimens studied include a sample of 12 extant human molars. Local CT numbers (representing X-ray attenuation) are used to determine the exact position of the boundaries of a structure. Using this technique most studied dimensions, including four of human molar enamel thickness, could be obtained from CT scans with a maximum error range of +/- 0.1 mm. The limitations of the method are discussed with special reference to problems associated with highly mineralized fossils.

Linear measurements of cortical bone and dental enamel by computed tomography: Applications and problems

This paper reviews the major developments that have taken place during the last three years in imaging with computed tomography (CT) using X-ray, emission, and ultrasound sources. Space limitations have resulted in some selection of topics by the author. There are four major sections dealing with algorithms, X-ray CT, emission CT, and ultrosound CT. Since most of the currently used algorithms are of filtered-backprojection type, we have concentrated on these in the section on algorithms (with emphasis on their implementation aspects). In X-ray CT an important question raised during the last few years has concerned the parameter measured by a CT scanner, given the fact that the X-rays used in CT scanners are polychromatic and the fact that tissue attenuation coefficients are energy dependent. Answers to this question are reviewed in the section on X-ray CT where we have also discussed the artifacts caused by the polychromaticity of the X-ray photons. Methods for the removal of these artifacts have also been reviewed. In emission CT the biggest development of the last three years is the great interest in positron tomography, although space constraints have dictated an essentially introductory treatment and not all aspects of the single photon and positron tomography have been surveyed. Finally, we have reviewed recent developments in ultrasound CT. We have pointed out that because of the sensitivity of this technique to refraction, it is currently limited to soft tissue structures, with ultrasonic detection of tumors in the female breast a significant application.

Computerized tomography with X-ray, emission, and ultrasound sources

A series of artifacts in computed tomography (CT) images, consisting of streaks coming off edges and flares surrounding the object being scanned, is shown to be due to polychromaticity of the X-ray beam. These artifacts are seldom seen on conventional CT brain scans. They are helpful in understandin

Polychromatic Streak Artifacts in Computed Tomography Images

The variance of the image noise in computed X-ray transmission tomography (CT) due to quantum noise is in a first approximation a nonlinear function of X-ray attenuation. Beam hardening in CT is also a nonlinear function of attenuation. We present a theoretical study of both phenomena. Computer simulations and numerical results show that both nonlinear dependencies have quite similar effects on image quality. We also show how the two-dimensional distribution of the noise variance in a CT image is a weighted superposition of images obtained by backprojecting integer powers of the noiseless projection data corresponding to the scanned object. The streak-like pattern in the image noise due to the anisotropic nature of the noise cross-correlation function is discussed. We also discuss how these nonlinear phenomena affect noise filtering and tissue characterization using statistical parameters.

Nonlinear polychromatic and noise artifacts in x-ray computed tomography images.

In conventional computed tomography images only the average CT number, which is a first-order statistical parameter, is used to characterize the tissues by giving an estimate of tissue density. Second order statistical parameters such as the signal variance and cross-correlation function have also been used to obtain additional information to discriminate between certain tissues and lesions. However, the contribution of quantum noise to the signal variance and cross-correlation function creates, for the conventional CT patient dose, a background signal often larger than the signal containing the information about tissue structure. The misleading information, called "artifacts", in second-order image statistics caused by quantum noise, is studied.

Information and artifact in computed tomography image statistics.

Polychromaticity and noise artifacts in computed x-ray tomography can be traced to a nonlinear dependence of projection data and its variance upon an ideal consistent set of projection data. We describe both types of artifacts and present mathematical models. A comparison is made between artifacts in the image i(r) of CT values and artifacts in the distribution ?2(r) of the noise variance. Three classification schemes for these nonlinear artifacts are presented: the physical origin of the artifacts (I), the geometrical appearance of the artifact (II), and the degree of consistency of the nonlinear shadow (III).

Andre J. Duerinckx

Papers

Polychromatic Streak Artifacts in Computed Tomography Images

Nonlinear polychromatic and noise artifacts in x-ray computed tomography images.

Information and artifact in computed tomography image statistics.

Ciassification of Artifacts in X-Ray Cr Images Due to Nonlinear Shadows