Increased range of motion after static stretching is not due to changes in muscle and tendon structures

Stretching has long been used in many physical activities to increase range of motion (ROM) around a joint. Stretching also has other acute effects on the neuromuscular system. For instance, significant reductions in maximal voluntary strength, muscle power or evoked contractile properties have been recorded immediately after a single bout of static stretching, raising interest in other stretching modalities. Thus, the effects of dynamic stretching on subsequent muscular performance have been questioned. This review aimed to investigate performance and physiological alterations following dynamic stretching. There is a substantial amount of evidence pointing out the positive effects on ROM and subsequent performance (force, power, sprint and jump). The larger ROM would be mainly attributable to reduced stiffness of the muscle-tendon unit, while the improved muscular performance to temperature and potentiation-related mechanisms caused by the voluntary contraction associated with dynamic stretching. Therefore, if the goal of a warm-up is to increase joint ROM and to enhance muscle force and/or power, dynamic stretching seems to be a suitable alternative to static stretching. Nevertheless, numerous studies reporting no alteration or even performance impairment have highlighted possible mitigating factors (such as stretch duration, amplitude or velocity). Accordingly, ballistic stretching, a form of dynamic stretching with greater velocities, would be less beneficial than controlled dynamic stretching. Notwithstanding, the literature shows that inconsistent description of stretch procedures has been an important deterrent to reaching a clear consensus. In this review, we highlight the need for future studies reporting homogeneous, clearly described stretching protocols, and propose a clarified stretching terminology and methodology.

Acute Effects of Dynamic Stretching on Muscle Flexibility and Performance: An Analysis of the Current Literature.

It is recognized that stretching is an effective method to chronically increase the joint range of motion. However, the effects of stretching training on the muscle-tendon structural properties remain unclear. This systematic review with meta-analysis aimed to determine whether chronic stretching alter the muscle-tendon structural properties. Published papers regarding longitudinal stretching (static, dynamic and/or PNF) intervention (either randomized or not) in humans of any age and health status, with more than 2 weeks in duration and at least 2 sessions per week, were searched in PubMed, PEDro, ScienceDirect and ResearchGate databases. Structural or mechanical variables from joint (maximal tolerated passive torque or resistance to stretch) or muscle-tendon unit (muscle architecture, stiffness, extensibility, shear modulus, volume, thickness, cross-sectional area, and slack length) were extracted from those papers. A total of 26 studies were selected, with a duration ranging from 3 to 8 weeks, and an average total time under stretching of 1165 seconds per week. Small effects were seen for maximal tolerated passive torque, but trivial effects were seen for joint resistance to stretch, muscle architecture, muscle stiffness, and tendon stiffness. A large heterogeneity was seen for most of the variables. Stretching interventions with 3- to 8-week duration do not seem to change either the muscle or the tendon properties, although it increases the extensibility and tolerance to a greater tensile force. Adaptations to chronic stretching protocols shorter than 8 weeks seem to mostly occur at a sensory level.

/pdf/can-chronic-stretching-change-the-muscle-tendon-mechanical-532p6vncxc.pdf

Can chronic stretching change the muscle-tendon mechanical properties? A review.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of a single static, ballistic, or proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching exercise on the various muscle-tendon parameters of the lower leg and to detect possible differences in the effects between the methods. Volunteers (n = 122) were randomly divided into static, ballistic, and PNF stretching groups and a control group. Before and after the 4 × 30 s stretching intervention, we determined the maximum dorsiflexion range of motion (RoM) with the corresponding fascicle length and pennation angle of the gastrocnemius medialis. Passive resistive torque (PRT) and maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) were measured with a dynamometer. Observation of muscle-tendon junction (MTJ) displacement with ultrasound allowed us to determine the length changes in the tendon and muscle, respectively, and hence to calculate stiffness. Although RoM increased (static: +4.3%, ballistic: +4.5%, PNF: +3.5%), PRT (static: -11.4%, ballistic: -11.5%, PNF: -13,7%), muscle stiffness (static: -13.1%, ballistic: -20.3%, PNF: -20.2%), and muscle-tendon stiffness (static: -11.3%, ballistic: -10.5%, PNF: -13.7%) decreased significantly in all the stretching groups. Only in the PNF stretching group, the pennation angle in the stretched position (-4.2%) and plantar flexor MVC (-4.6%) decreased significantly. Multivariate analysis showed no clinically relevant difference between the stretching groups. The increase in RoM and the decrease in PRT and muscle-tendon stiffness could be explained by more compliant muscle tissue following a single static, ballistic, or PNF stretching exercise.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/sms.12725

Effects of acute static, ballistic, and PNF stretching exercise on the muscle and tendon tissue properties.

Stretching exercises to increase the range of motion (ROM) of joints have been used by sports coaches and medical professionals for improving performance and rehabilitation. The ability of connective and muscular tissues to change their architecture in response to stretching is important for their proper function, repair and performance. Given the dearth of relevant data in the literature, this review examined two key elements of stretching: stretch intensity and stretch position; and their significance to ROM, delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), and inflammation in different populations. A search of three databases, Pub-Med, Google Scholar, and Cochrane Reviews, identified 152 articles, which were subsequently categorized into four groups; athletes (n = 24), clinical (n = 29), elderly (n = 12), and general population (n = 87). The use of different populations facilitated a wider examination of the stretching components and their effects. All 152 articles incorporated information regarding duration, frequency and stretch position, whereas only 79 referred to the intensity of stretching and 22 of these 79 studies were deemed high quality. It appears that the intensity of stretching is relatively under-researched, and the importance of body position and its influence on stretch intensity, is largely unknown. In conclusion, this review has highlighted areas for future research, including stretch intensity and position and their effect on musculo-tendinous tissue, in relation to the sensation of pain, delayed onset muscle soreness, inflammation, as well as muscle health and performance

/pdf/the-relevance-of-stretch-intensity-and-position-a-systematic-2pf1b0ejoh.pdf

The relevance of stretch intensity and position-a systematic review.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of a 6-week proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching training program on the various parameters of the human gastrocnemius medialis muscle and the Achilles tendon. Therefore, 49 volunteers were randomly assigned into PNF stretching and control groups. Before and after the stretching intervention, we determined the maximum dorsiflexion range of motion (RoM) with the corresponding fascicle length and pennation angle. Passive resistive torque (PRT) and maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) of the musculo-articular complex were measured with a dynamometer. Muscle-tendon junction (MTJ) displacement allowed us to determine the length changes in tendon and muscle, and hence to calculate stiffness. Mean RoM increased from 31.1 ± 7.2° to 33.1 ± 7.2° (P = 0.02), stiffness of the tendon decreased significantly in both active (from 21.1 ± 8.0 to 18.1 ± 5.5 N/mm) and passive (from 12.1 ± 4.9 to 9.6 ± 3.2 N/mm) conditions, and the pennation angle increased from 18.5 ± 1.8° to 19.5 ± 2.1° (P = 0.01) at the neutral ankle position (90°), only in the intervention group, whereas MVC and PRT values remained unchanged. We conclude that a 6-week PNF stretching training program increases RoM and decreases tendon stiffness, despite no change in PRT.

Effect of PNF stretching training on the properties of human muscle and tendon structures

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of a 6-wk ballistic stretching training program on various parameters of the human gastrocnemius medialis muscle and the Achilles tendon. It is known that ballistic stretching is an appropriate means of increasing the range of motion (RoM), but information in the literature about the mechanical adaptation of the muscle-tendon unit (MTU) is scarce. Therefore, in this study, a total of 48 volunteers were randomly assigned into ballistic stretching and control groups. Before and following the stretching intervention, we determined the maximum dorsiflexion RoM with the corresponding fascicle length and pennation angle. Passive resistive torque (PRT) and maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) were measured with a dynamometer. Muscle-tendon junction (MTJ) displacement allowed us to determine the length changes in tendon and muscle, and hence to calculate stiffness. Mean RoM increased significantly from 33.8 ± 6.3° to 37.8 ± 7.2° only in the intervention group, but other functional (PRT, MVC) and structural (fascicle length, pennation angle, muscle stiffness, tendon stiffness) parameters were unaltered. Thus the increased RoM could not be explained by structural changes in the MTU and was likely due to increased stretch tolerance.

https://www.physiology.org/doi/pdf/10.1152/japplphysiol.00195.2014

Effects of ballistic stretching training on the properties of human muscle and tendon structures

The purpose of this study was to investigate the time course of the changes of muscle-tendon mechanical properties and the function responses of the plantar flexor muscles following 5 × 60 s of sta...

https://tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/17461391.2019.1580319

Andreas Konrad

Papers

Increased range of motion after static stretching is not due to changes in muscle and tendon structures

Effects of acute static, ballistic, and PNF stretching exercise on the muscle and tendon tissue properties.

Effect of PNF stretching training on the properties of human muscle and tendon structures

Effects of ballistic stretching training on the properties of human muscle and tendon structures

The time course of muscle-tendon properties and function responses of a five-minute static stretching exercise