https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/5/110/206.full.pdf

The american psychological association.

Ideology has re-emerged as an important topic of inquiry among social, personality, and political psychologists. In this review, we examine recent theory and research concerning the structure, contents, and functions of ideological belief systems. We begin by defining the construct and placing it in historical and philosophical context. We then examine different perspectives on how many (and what types of) dimensions individuals use to organize their political opinions. We investigate (a) how and to what extent individuals acquire the discursive contents associated with various ideologies, and (b) the social-psychological functions that these ideologies serve for those who adopt them. Our review highlights “elective affinities” between situational and dispositional needs of individuals and groups and the structure and contents of specific ideologies. Finally, we consider the consequences of ideology, especially with respect to attitudes, evaluations, and processes of system justification.

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Political ideology: Its structure, functions, and elective affinities

Research showing that activation of negative stereotypes can impair the performance of stigmatized individuals on a wide variety of tasks has proliferated. However, a complete understanding of the processes underlying these stereotype threat effects on behavior is still lacking. The authors examine stereotype threat in the context of research on stress arousal, vigilance, working memory, and self-regulation to develop a process model of how negative stereotypes impair performance on cognitive and social tasks that require controlled processing, as well as sensorimotor tasks that require automatic processing. The authors argue that stereotype threat disrupts performance via 3 distinct, yet interrelated, mechanisms: (a) a physiological stress response that directly impairs prefrontal processing, (b) a tendency to actively monitor performance, and (c) efforts to suppress negative thoughts and emotions in the service of self-regulation. These mechanisms combine to consume executive resources needed to perform well on cognitive and social tasks. The active monitoring mechanism disrupts performance on sensorimotor tasks directly. Empirical evidence for these assertions is reviewed, and implications for interventions designed to alleviate stereotype threat are discussed.

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An Integrated Process Model of Stereotype Threat Effects on Performance

/pdf/social-psychology-handbook-of-basic-principles-5cncpuwpen.pdf

Social Psychology: Handbook of Basic Principles

This article compiles results from a century of social psychological research, more than 25,000 studies of 8 million people. A large number of social psychological conclusions are listed alongside meta-analytic information about the magnitude and variability of the corresponding effects. References to 322 meta-analyses of social psychological phenomena are presented, as well as statistical effect-size summaries. Analyses reveal that social psychological effects typically yield a value of r equal to .21 and that, in the typical research literature, effects vary from study to study in ways that produce a standard deviation in r of .15. Uses, limitations, and implications of this large-scale compilation are noted. In 1898 Norman Triplett published an early experiment in social psychology, about an effect of the presence of others on task performance. In the 100 years since Triplett’s investigation, many social psychological effects have been documented. The current article summarizes the best established of these findings, with data from more than 25,000 research studies and 8 million people. Our goal is to quantify the magnitude and variability of social psychological effects. We begin by considering previous summaries of social psychology, note some unresolved issues, and review developments that permit a century of scholarly work to be quantitatively described. For present purposes, we follow Manstead and Hewstone (1995) in regarding social psychology as the study of “the reciprocal influence of the individual and his or her social context” (p. 588).

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One hundred years of social psychology quantitatively described

This meta-analysis examined the extent to which stereotypes of leaders are culturally masculine. The primary studies fit into 1 of 3 paradigms: (a) In Schein's (1973) think manager-think male paradigm, 40 studies with 51 effect sizes compared the similarity of male and leader stereotypes and the similarity of female and leader stereotypes; (b) in Powell and Butterfield's (1979) agency-communion paradigm, 22 studies with 47 effect sizes compared stereotypes of leaders' agency and communion; and (c) in Shinar's (1975) masculinity-femininity paradigm, 7 studies with 101 effect sizes represented stereotypes of leadership-related occupations on a single masculinity-femininity dimension. Analyses implemented appropriate random and mixed effects models. All 3 paradigms demonstrated overall masculinity of leader stereotypes: (a) In the think manager-think male paradigm, intraclass correlation = .25 for the women-leaders similarity and intraclass correlation = .62 for the men-leaders similarity; (b) in the agency-communion paradigm, g = 1.55, indicating greater agency than communion; and (c) in the masculinity-femininity paradigm, g = 0.92, indicating greater masculinity than the androgynous scale midpoint. Subgroup and meta-regression analyses indicated that this masculine construal of leadership has decreased over time and was greater for male than female research participants. In addition, stereotypes portrayed leaders as less masculine in educational organizations than in other domains and in moderate- than in high-status leader roles. This article considers the relation of these findings to Eagly and Karau's (2002) role congruity theory, which proposed contextual influences on the incongruity between stereotypes of women and leaders. The implications for prejudice against women leaders are also considered.

Are leader stereotypes masculine? A meta-analysis of three research paradigms.

In applying social role theory to account for the content of a wide range of stereotypes, this research tests the proposition that observations of groups' roles determine stereotype content (Eagly & Wood, 2012). In a novel test of how stereotypes can develop from observations, preliminary research collected participants' beliefs about the occupational roles (e.g., lawyer, teacher, fast food worker, chief executive officer, store clerk, manager) in which members of social groups (e.g., Black women, Hispanics, White men, the rich, senior citizens, high school dropouts) are overrepresented relative to their numbers in the general population. These beliefs about groups' typical occupational roles proved to be generally accurate when evaluated in relation to data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Then, correlational studies predicted participants' stereotypes of social groups from the attributes ascribed to group members' typical occupational roles (Studies 1a, 1b, and 1c), the behaviors associated with those roles (Study 2), and the occupational interest profile of the roles (Study 3). As predicted by social role theory, beliefs about the attributes of groups' typical roles were strongly related to group stereotypes on both communion and agency/competence. In addition, an experimental study (Study 4) demonstrated that when social groups were described with changes to their typical social roles in the future, their projected stereotypes were more influenced by these future roles than by their current group stereotypes, thus supporting social role theory's predictions about stereotype change. Discussion considers the implications of these findings for stereotype change and the relation of social role theory to other theories of stereotype content.

Evidence for the social role theory of stereotype content: Observations of groups’ roles shape stereotypes.

This research examined the proposition that differential role occupancy by women and men fosters gender gaps in sociopolitical attitudes. Analyses of the General Social Survey (J. A. Davis & T. W. Smith, 1998) and a community sample showed that women, more than men, endorsed policies that are socially compassionate, traditionally moral, and supportive of equal rights for women and for gays and lesbians. To clarify the sources of these gaps, the research examined (a) similarities between gender gaps and gaps associated with other respondent attributes such as race and parenthood, (b) interactions between respondent sex and other attributes, (c) the temporal patterning of gender gaps, and (d) the mediation of attitudinal gender gaps by 3 ideological variables--commitment to equality, group-based dominance, and conservatism versus liberalism.

Gender gaps in sociopolitical attitudes: a social psychological analysis.

Gender Gaps in Sociopolitical Attitudes: A Social Psychological Analysis (WP-03-15)

Contents: Preface. Part I: Framing Sex Differences and Similarities. K. Dindia, Men Are From North Dakota, Women Are From South Dakota. E. Aries, Gender Differences in Interaction: A Reexamination. P.H. Wright, Toward an Expanded Orientation to the Comparative Study of Women's and Men's Same-Sex Friendships. J.A. Hall, How Big Are Nonverbal Sex Differences? The Case of Smiling and Nonverbal Sensitivity. G.N. Powell, L.M. Graves, Gender and Leadership: Perceptions and Realities. M. Allen, K.S. Valde, Researching a Gendered World: The Intersection of Methodological and Ethical Concerns. Part II: Approaches to Sex Differences and Similarities. P.A. Anderson, The Evolution of Biological Sex Differences in Communication. B.R. Burleson, A.W. Kunkel, Revisiting the Different Cultures Thesis: An Assessment of Sex Differences and Similarities in Supportive Communication. A.H. Eagly, A.M. Koenig, Social Role Theory of Sex Differences and Similarities: Implication for Prosocial Behavior. M. Crawford, M.R. Kaufman, Sex Differences Versus Social Processes in the Construction of Gender. L. Di Mare, V.R. Waldron, Researching Gendered Communication in Japan and the United States: Current Limitations and Alternative Approaches. Part III: Sex Differences and Similarities in Communicative Behaviors. A. Mulac, The Gender-Linked Language Effect: Do Language Differences Really Make a Difference? L.K. Guerrero, S.M. Jones, R.R. Boburka, Sex Differences in Emotional Communication. J.K. Burgoon, J.P. Blair, D.B. Buller, P. Tilley, Sex Differences in Presenting and Detecting Deceptive Messages. A.E. Lindsey, W.R. Zakahi, Perceptions of Men and Women Departing From Conversational Sex-Role Stereotypes. P.J. Kalbfleisch, A.L. Herold, Sex, Power, and Communication. Part IV: Sex Differences and Similarities in Romantic Relationships. M.R. Trost, J.K. Alberts, How Men and Women Communicate Attraction: An Evolutionary View. P.A. Mongeau, M.C.M. Serewicz, M.L.M. Henningsen, K.L. Davis, Sex Differences in the Transition to a Heterosexual Romantic Relationship. D.J. Canary, J. Wahba, Do Women Work Harder Than Men at Maintaining Relationships? L.M. Sagrestano, C.L. Heavey, A. Christensen, Individual Differences Versus Social Structural Approaches to Explaining Demand-Withdraw and Social Influence Behaviors. J.T. Wood, Gender, Power, and Violence in Heterosexual Relationships. J.S. Hyde, Epilogue.

Anne M. Koenig

Papers

Are leader stereotypes masculine? A meta-analysis of three research paradigms.

Evidence for the social role theory of stereotype content: Observations of groups’ roles shape stereotypes.

Gender gaps in sociopolitical attitudes: a social psychological analysis.

Gender Gaps in Sociopolitical Attitudes: A Social Psychological Analysis (WP-03-15)

Sex Differences and Similarities in Communication