A correlational study examined relationships between motivational orientation, self-regulated learning, and classroom academic performance for 173 seventh graders from eight science and seven English classes. A self-report measure of student self-efficacy, intrinsic value, test anxiety, self-regulation, and use of learning strategies was administered, and performance data were obtained from work on classroom assignments. Self-efficacy and intrinsic value were positively related to cognitive engagement and performance. Regression analyses revealed that, depending on the outcome measure, self-regulation, self-efficacy, and test anxiety emerged as the best predictors of performance. Intrinsic value did not have a direct influence on performance but was strongly related to self-regulation and cognitive strategy use, regardless of prior achievement level. The implications of individual differences in motivational orientation for cognitive engagement and self-regulation in the classroom are discussed. Self-regulation of cognition and behavior is an important aspect of student learning and academic performance in the classroom context (Corno & Mandinach, 1983; Corno & Rohrkemper, 1985). There are a variety of definitions of selfregulated learning, but three components seem especially important for classroom performance. First, self-regulated learning includes students' metacognitive strategies for planning, monitoring, and modifying their cognition (e.g., Brown, Bransford, Campione, & Ferrara, 1983; Corno, 1986; Zim

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Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance.

This paper describes the statistical similarities among mediation, confounding, and suppression. Each is quantified by measuring the change in the relationship between an independent and a dependent variable after adding a third variable to the analysis. Mediation and confounding are identical statistically and can be distinguished only on conceptual grounds. Methods to determine the confidence intervals for confounding and suppression effects are proposed based on methods developed for mediated effects. Although the statistical estimation of effects and standard errors is the same, there are important conceptual differences among the three types of effects.

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Equivalence of the Mediation, Confounding and Suppression Effect

Indirect (i.e., structured projective) questioning has been employed frequently in marketing and other social sciences to reduce social desirability bias, that is, systematic error in self-report measures resulting from the desire of respondents to avoid embarrassment and project a favorable image to others. Yet little is known about the validity of indirect questioning in reducing social desirability bias. This article reports on three studies that examine indirect questioning as a technique to reduce social desirability bias on self-report measures. The effects of asking indirect (i.e., structured, projective) questions were compared with direct (i.e., structured, personal) questions The pattern of results indicates that indirect questioning reduces social desirability bias on variables subject to social influence and has no significant effect on socially neutral variables. The social nature of the differences between direct and indirect questioning groups, and the attribution of an undesirable trait to an out-group but not an in-group target, supports the view that subjects projected their beliefs and evaluations in the indirect response situation. These results are consistent across several product categories and indirect question wordings.

Social Desirability Bias and the Validity of Indirect Questioning

Indirect (i.e., structured projective) questioning has been employed frequently in marketing and other social sciences to reduce social desirability bias, that is, systematic error in self-report measures resulting from the desire of respondents to avoid embarrassment and project a favorable image to others. Yet little is known about the validity of indirect questioning in reducing social desirability bias. This article reports on three studies that examine indirect questioning as a technique to reduce social desirability bias on self-report measures. The effects of asking indirect (i.e., structured, projective) questions were compared with direct (i.e., structured, personal) questions. The pattern of results indicates that indirect questioning reduces social desirability bias on variables subject to social influence and has no significant effect on socially neutral variables. The social nature of the differences between direct and indirect questioning groups, and the attribution of an undesirable trait to an out-group but not an in-group target, supports the view that subjects projected their beliefs and evaluations in the indirect response situation. These results are consistent across several product categories and indirect question wordings.

Because of the importance of mediation studies, researchers have been continuously searching for the best statistical test for mediation effect. The approaches that have been most commonly employed include those that use zero-order and partial correlation, hierarchical regression models, and structural equation modeling (SEM). This study extends MacKinnon and colleagues (MacKinnon, Lockwood, Hoffmann, West, & Sheets, 2002; MacKinnon, Lockwood, & Williams, 2004, MacKinnon, Warsi, & Dwyer, 1995) works by conducting a simulation that examines the distribution of mediation and suppression effects of latent variables with SEM, and the properties of confidence intervals developed from eight different methods. Results show that SEM provides unbiased estimates of mediation and suppression effects, and that the bias-corrected bootstrap confidence intervals perform best in testing for mediation and suppression effects. Steps to implement the recommended procedures with Amos are presented.

Testing Mediation and Suppression Effects of Latent Variables: Bootstrapping With Structural Equation Models

In the two-predictor situation it is shown that traditional and negative suppressors increase the predictive value of a standard predictor beyond that suggested by the predictor's zero order validi...

A Revised Definition for Suppressor Variables: a Guide To Their Identification and Interpretation:

A general index of reliability, termed “canonical reliability,” is developed for use with profiles, or more generally, for use with vectors of random variables. Canonical reliability is defined as the ratio of the average squared distance among true scores to the average squared distance among observed scores. Based on Mahalonobis distances, canonical reliability is shown to be consistent with multivariate analogues of parallel form correlations, squared correlation between true and observed scores, and an analysis of variance formulation. The index of reliability based on Cronbach and Gleser'sD
2 is also derived from the general formulation. A comparison of the Mahalonobis andD
2 approaches indicates that score vectors usingD
2 distances are more reliable; however, both methods of comparing profiles are useful depending on the nature of the information that is desired. Transforming the observed variables to independent canonical variates provides a basis for comparing profiles on maximally reliable profile dimensions. For illustrative purposes, profile reliability is calculated and interpreted for the WISC subscales for a 7 1/2 year age group.

Measures of reliability for profiles and test batteries.

Measures of multivariate reliability are calculated for profiles of WISC subscales on three age groups. Profile dimensions based on reliability considerations are also established and matched across age groups and with factor analytic dimensions. While all possible differences among individual subscales are quite unreliable (about .51), a reduced set of five uncorrelated dimensions can be found with a more satisfactory reliability (about .87). In unrotated form, the maximally reliable dimension is essentially total IQ and the second maximally reliable dimension closely resembles a verbal-performance contrast. Four of the five rotated dimensions give a good match across age groups and with Verbal Comprehension, Relevancy, Perceptual Organization and Maze-specific factors. Guidelines for the interpretation and use of WISC subscale profiles are provided for both clinical and research uses.

Anthony J. Conger

Papers

A Revised Definition for Suppressor Variables: a Guide To Their Identification and Interpretation:

Measures of reliability for profiles and test batteries.

Reliable Dimensions for Wisc Profiles