https://personal.lse.ac.uk/FERREIRD/gender.pdf

Women in the boardroom and their impact on governance and performance

It is well known that firms are more likely to issue equity when their market values are high, relative to book and past market values, and to repurchase equity when their market values are low. We document that the resulting effects on capital structure are very persistent. As a consequence, current capital structure is strongly related to historical market values. The results suggest the theory that capital structure is the cumulative outcome of past attempts to time the equity market. IN CORPORATE F INANCE, “equity market timing” refers to the practice of issuing shares at high prices and repurchasing at low prices. The intention is to exploit temporary f luctuations in the cost of equity relative to the cost of other forms of capital. In the efficient and integrated capital markets studied by Modigliani and Miller ~1958!, the costs of different forms of capital do not vary independently, so there is no gain from opportunistically switching between equity and debt. In capital markets that are inefficient or segmented, by contrast, market timing benefits ongoing shareholders at the expense of entering and exiting ones. Managers thus have incentives to time the market if they think it is possible and if they care more about ongoing shareholders. In practice, equity market timing appears to be an important aspect of real corporate financial policy. There is evidence for market timing in four different kinds of studies. First, analyses of actual financing decisions show that firms tend to issue equity instead of debt when market value is high, relative to book value and past market values, and tend to repurchase equity when market value is low. 1 Second, analyses of long-run stock returns fol

/pdf/market-timing-and-capital-structure-3sogeumvrs.pdf

Market Timing and Capital Structure

This paper examines the relative importance of many factors in the capital structure decisions of publicly traded American firms from 1950 to 2003. The most reliable factors for explaining market leverage are: median industry leverage (+ effect on leverage), market-to-book assets ratio (−), tangibility (+), profits (−), log of assets (+), and expected inflation (+). In addition, we find that dividend-paying firms tend to have lower leverage. When considering book leverage, somewhat similar effects are found. However, for book leverage, the impact of firm size, the market-to-book ratio, and the effect of inflation are not reliable. The empirical evidence seems reasonably consistent with some versions of the trade-off theory of capital structure.

/pdf/capital-structure-decisions-which-factors-are-reliably-55nwu4yjxo.pdf

Capital Structure Decisions: Which Factors Are Reliably Important?

The pecking order theory of corporate leverage is tested against the static tradeoff theory of corporate leverage, using a broad cross-section of US firms over the period 1980-1998. A derivation of the conditional target adjustment framework is provided as a better empirical test of mean reversion. None of the predictions of the pecking order theory hold in the data. As predicted by the static tradeoff theory, robust evidence of mean reversion in leverage is found. This is true both unconditionally and conditionally on financial factors. Leverage is more persistent at lower levels than at higher levels. When debt matures, it is not replaced dollar for dollar by new debt and so leverage declines. Large firms increase their debt in order to support the payment of dividends. By contrast, small firms reduce their debt while they pay dividends.

Testing the Pecking Order Theory of Capital Structure

It is well known that firms are more likely to issue equity when their market values are high, relative to book and past market values, and to repurchase equity when their market values are low. We document that the resulting effects on capital structure are very persistent. As a consequence, current capital structure is strongly related to past market values. The results suggest the theory that capital structure is the cumulative outcome of past attempts to time the equity market.

/pdf/market-timing-and-capital-structure-21w5ye9gf3.pdf

When firms adjust their capital structures, they tend to move toward a target debt ratio that is consistent with theories based on tradeoffs between the costs and benefits of debt. In contrast to previous empirical work, out tests explicitly account for the fact that firms may face impediments to movements toward their target ratio, and that the target ratio may change over time as the firm's profitability and stock price change. A separate analysis of the size of the issue and repurchase transactions suggests that the deviation between the actual and the target ratios plays a more important role in the repurchase decision than in the issuance decision.

The debt-equity choice

Determinants of target capital structure: The case of dual debt and equity issues

We examine the relation between expected future volatility (options' implied volatility) and the cross-section of expected returns. A trading strategy buying stocks in the highest implied volatility quintile and shorting stocks in the lowest implied volatility quintile generates insignificant returns. A similar strategy using one-month lagged realized volatility generates significantly negative returns. To investigate the differences and interactions between alternative measures of total risk, we estimate three principal components based on realized volatility, call implied and put implied volatility. Long-short trading strategies generate significant returns only for the second and the third principal components. We find that the second principal component is related to the realized-implied volatility spread which can be viewed as a proxy for volatility risk. We find that the third principal component is related to the call-put implied volatility spread that reflects future price increase of the underlying stock.

Volatility Spreads and Expected Stock Returns

Contrary to Baker and Wurgler (2002), I find that the importance of historical average market-to-book ratios in leverage regressions is not due to past equity market timing. Al though equity transactions may be timed to equity market conditions, they do not have sig nificant long lasting effects on capital structure. Debt transactions exhibit timing patterns that are unlikely to induce a negative relation between market-to-book ratios and leverage. I also find that historical average market-to-book ratios have significant effects on current financing and investment decisions, implying that they contain information about growth opportunities not captured by current market-to-book ratios.

Are Observed Capital Structures Determined by Equity Market Timing

This paper investigates whether realized and implied volatilities of individual stocks can predict the cross-sectional variation in expected returns. Although the levels of volatilities from the physical and risk-neutral distributions cannot predict future returns, there is a significant relation between volatility spreads and expected stock returns. Portfolio level analyses and firm-level cross-sectional regressions indicate a negative and significant relation between expected returns and the realized-implied volatility spread that can be viewed as a proxy for volatility risk. The results also provide evidence for a significantly positive link between expected returns and the call-put options' implied volatility spread that can be considered as a proxy for jump risk. The parameter estimates from the VAR-bivariate-GARCH model indicate significant information flow from individual equity options to individual stocks, implying informed trading in options by investors with private information.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/40539244.pdf

Armen Hovakimian

Papers

The debt-equity choice

Determinants of target capital structure: The case of dual debt and equity issues

Volatility Spreads and Expected Stock Returns

Are Observed Capital Structures Determined by Equity Market Timing

Volatility Spreads and Expected Stock Returns