Meta-analyses of studies yielding sex-specific risk of potentially traumatic events (PTEs) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) indicated that female participants were more likely than male participants to meet criteria for PTSD, although they were less likely to experience PTEs. Female participants were more likely than male participants to experience sexual assault and child sexual abuse, but less likely to experience accidents, nonsexual assaults, witnessing death or injury, disaster or fire, and combat or war. Among victims of specific PTEs (excluding sexual assault or abuse), female participants exhibited greater PTSD. Thus, sex differences in risk of exposure to particular types of PTE can only partially account for the differential PTSD risk in male and female participants.

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Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: a quantitative review of 25 years of research.

Contents Historical, Contemporary, and Future Perspectives on Self-Regulated Learning and Performance Dale H. Schunk and Jeffrey A. Greene Section I. Basic Domains of Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance Social Cognitive Theoretical Perspective of Self-Regulation Ellen L. Usher and Dale H. Schunk Cognition and Metacognition Within Self-Regulated Learning Philip H. Winne Developmental Trajectories of Skills and Abilities Relevant for Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance Rick H. Hoyle and Amy L. Dent Motivation and Affect in Self-Regulated Learning: Does Metacognition Play a Role? Anastasia Efklides, Bennett L. Schwartz, and Victoria Brown Self-Regulation, Co-Regulation and Shared Regulation in Collaborative Learning Environments Allyson Hadwin, Sanna Jarvela, and Mariel Miller Section II. Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance in Context Metacognitive Pedagogies in Mathematics Classrooms: From Kindergarten to College and Beyond Zemira R. Mevarech, Lieven Verschaffel, and Erik De Corte Self-Regulated Learning in Reading Keith W. Thiede and Anique B. H. de Bruin Self-Regulation and Writing Steve Graham, Karen R. Harris, Charles MacArthur, and Tanya Santangelo The Self-Regulation of Learning and Conceptual Change in Science: Research, Theory, and Educational Applications Gale M. Sinatra and Gita Taasoobshirazi Using Technology-Rich Environments to Foster Self-Regulated Learning in the Social Studies Eric G. Poitras and Susanne P. Lajoie Self-Regulated Learning in Music Practice and Performance Gary E. McPherson, Peter Miksza, and Paul Evans Self-Regulation in Athletes: A Social Cognitive Perspective Anastasia Kitsantas, Maria Kavussanu, Deborah B. Corbatto, and Pepijn K. C. van de Pol Self-Regulation: An Integral Part of Standards-Based Education Marie C. White and Maria K. DiBenedetto Teachers as Agents in Promoting Students' SRL and Performance: Applications for Teachers' Dual-Role Training Program Bracha Kramarski Section III. Technology and Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance Emerging Classroom Technology: Using Self-Regulation Principles as a Guide for Effective Implementation Daniel C. Moos Understanding and Reasoning About Real-Time Cognitive, Affective, and Metacognitive Processes to Foster Self-Regulation With Advanced Learning Technologies Roger Azevedo, Michelle Taub, and Nicholas V. Mudrick The Role of Self-Regulated Learning in Digital Games John L. Nietfeld Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance in Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning Environments Peter Reimann and Maria Bannert Section IV. Methodology and Assessment of Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance Validity and the Use of Self-Report Questionnaires to Assess Self-Regulated Learning Christopher A. Wolters and Sungjun Won Capturing and Modeling Self-Regulated Learning Using Think-Aloud Protocols Jeffrey A. Greene, Victor M. Deekens, Dana Z. Copeland, and Seung Yu Assessing Self-Regulated Learning Using Microanalytic Methods Timothy J. Cleary and Gregory L. Callan Advancing Research and Practice About Self-Regulated Learning: The Promise of In-Depth Case Study Methodologies Deborah L. Butler and Sylvie C. Cartier Examining the Cyclical, Loosely Sequenced, and Contingent Features of Self-Regulated Learning: Trace Data and Their Analysis Matthew L. Bernacki Data Mining Methods for Assessing Self-Regulated Learning Gautam Biswas, Ryan S. Baker, and Luc Paquette Section V. Individual and Group Differences in Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance 26. Calibration of Performance and Academic Delay of Gratification: Individual and Group Differences in Self-Regulation of Learning Peggy P. Chen and Hefer Bembenutty 27. Academic Help Seeking as a Self-Regulated Learning Strategy: Current Issues, Future Directions Stuart A. Karabenick and Eleftheria N. Gonida 28. The Three Faces of Epistemic Thinking in Self-Regulated Learning Krista R. Muis and Cara Singh 29. Advances in Understanding Young Children's Self-Regulation of Learning Nancy E. Perry, Lynda R. Hutchinson, Nikki Yee, and Elina Maatta 30. Self-Regulation: Implications for Individuals With Special Needs Linda H. Mason and Robert Reid 31. Culture and Self-Regulation in Educational Contexts Dennis M. McInerney and Ronnel B. King

Handbook of Self-Regulation of Learning and Performance

The goal of this article is to discuss one of Paul Pintrich's more enduring legacies: the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ), an 81-item, self-report instrument consisting of 6 motivation subscales and 9 learning strategies scales. The MSLQ has proven to be a reliable and useful tool that can be adapted for a number of different purposes for researchers, instructors, and students. The MSLQ has been translated into multiple languages and has been used by hundreds of researchers and instructors throughout the world. This article reviews the history of the MSLQ and discusses how it has been used to (a) address the nature of motivation and use of learning strategies in different types of content areas and target populations; (b) help refine our theoretical understanding of motivational constructs, how they are distinct from one another, and what individual differences exist in self-regulated learning; and (c) evaluate the motivational and cognitive effects of different aspects of instruction.

The Making of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire

Meta-analytic techniques were used to estimate the effects of exposure to community violence on mental health outcomes across 114 studies. Community violence had its strongest effects on posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and externalizing problems and smallest impact on other internalizing symptoms. Victimization by community violence most predicted symptomatology compared to witnessing or hearing about community violence. Witnessing community violence had a greater effect than hearing about violence on externalizing problems, but both types of exposure had an equal impact on other internalizing problems. PTSD symptoms were equally predicted by victimization, witnessing, or hearing about community violence. Compared to children, adolescents reported a stronger relationship between externalizing behaviors and exposure, whereas children exhibited greater internalizing problems than did adolescents.

Community violence: A meta-analysis on the effect of exposure and mental health outcomes of children and adolescents

The present study estimated the unique contribution of self-efficacy to work-related performance controlling for personality (the Big 5 traits), intelligence or general mental ability, and job or task experience. Results, based on a meta-analysis of the relevant literatures, revealed that overall, across all studies and moderator conditions, the contribution of self-efficacy relative to purportedly more distal variables is relatively small. Within moderator categories, there were several cases in which self-efficacy made unique contributions to work-related performance. For example, self-efficacy predicted performance in jobs or tasks of low complexity but not those of medium or high complexity, and self-efficacy predicted performance for task but not job performance. Overall, results suggest that the predictive validity of self-efficacy is attenuated in the presence of individual differences, though this attenuation does depend on the context.

http://panglossinc.com/Judge,%20Jackson,%20et%20al.pdf

Self-efficacy and work-related performance: the integral role of individual differences.

Tinto (1993) proposed a model of institutional retention and departure to explain why college students persist in their studies or leave the university before obtaining their degrees. According to this model, persistence is affected by the extent to which students become integrated into both social and academic aspects of the college or university. Summarizing his own and others' research, Tinto concluded that students who are more academically and socially engaged in their colleges and communities are more likely to continue study until graduation. Braxton, Sullivan, and Johnson (1997) note that service-learning offers the conditions identified in Tinto's theory as most likely to facilitate developing meaningful connections between students, faculty, and community that will result in retention. The present study investigated the extent to which service-learning increases students' engagement with their studies, the university and community, and the likelihood of their continuing studies at the university (retention). Service-learning has been found to enhance a student's engagement with the community outside of the university. Service-learning participants, in comparisons with other students, have reported greater understanding of community problems (Astin & Sax, 1998), greater knowledge and acceptance of diverse races and cultures (Astin & Sax; McKenna & Rizzo, 1999), and a greater ability to get along with people of different backgrounds (Astin & Sax; McKenna & Rizzo). Students who participate in service-learning have shown significant increases in the belief that they could make a difference (Eyler & Giles, 1994), greater valuing of and commitment to future volunteer service (Eyler & Giles; Markus, Howard, & King, 1993; McKenna & Rizzo), and plans to become involved in helping careers (Markus et al., 1993). While many studies report positive effects of service-learning on community engagement, Eby (1998) suggests that service-learning could produce negative outcomes under some conditions. He points out that poorly planned service-learning may individualize social issues, de-emphasizing structural components and causes, and thereby reinforce students' views that community members are deficient. On the same note, service-learning can exaggerate the volunteer's importance, ignoring resources within the community. Thus, Eby cautions, an inadequately planned and organized experience might actually reinforce students' stereotypic thinking and increase their perceived distance from the community. Assessment of students' learning about the community must be a core component of service-learning program evaluation. Service-learning can affect students' academic engagement, as well. In some studies, academic engagement is measured by student reports; in others, engagement is inferred from the grades students receive. For example, positive effects on academic attitudes have been shown by McKenna and Rizzo (1999), who found that students reported service-learning's positive impact on their acquisition and understanding of course concepts. Similarly, Moely, McFarland, Miron, Mercer, and Ilustre (2002) found that students reported higher learning levels about the field of study of their service-learning courses. Eyler and Giles (1999) found that more than 58% of service-learning students in their national survey felt they had learned more in their service-learning classes than in their other classes. Several studies (Balazadeh, 1996; Markus et al., 1993; Sugar & Livosky, 1988) reported that students who took part in service-learning earned higher course grades than those students who did not. Findings for grades are not entirely consistent, as other studies (Miller, 1994; Kendrick, 1996) have reported no differences between the academic engagement of service learners and nonservice learners. In the present study, academic engagement was measured by asking students to report on their own perceived involvement with the course content and field of study. …

http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/p/pod/dod-idx?c=mjcsl;idno=3239521.0010.101

Service-Learning and Engagement, Academic Challenge, and Retention

Service-learning is receiving wide acceptance in higher education as an innovative educational practice that strengthens the acquisition of course concepts while also affecting students' attitudes regarding social problems, community issues, and civic action (Eyler & Giles, 1999; Yates & Youniss, 1996). With this increased interest, the question arises as to how well these educational and personal development goals are being accomplished. Stukas, Clary, and Snyder (1999) organize a review of service-learning research around several major goals, concluding that students who participate in Service-Learning may show increases in Self-Enhancement, Understanding of Self and World, Value-Expression, Career Development, and other matters. They also note that the extent and quality of research supporting positive outcomes in these domains is still limited. The present study tests service-learning's influence on college students' self-reports of such attitudes and self-evaluations. The Civic Attitudes and Skills Questionnaire (CASQ) was used to assess students' self-evaluations. The CASQ yields scores on six scales, developed through factor analysis, and for which reliability and validity evidence has been presented (Moely, Mercer, Ilustre, Miron, & McFarland, 2002). The six scales reflect three of the goals described by Stukas et al. (1999): Interpersonal and Problem-Solving Skills, Political Awareness, and Leadership Skills are aspects of Self-Enhancement; Social Justice Attitudes and Diversity Attitudes are components of Stukas et al.'s Understanding of Self and World; and a scale measuring plans for Civic Action reflects Value-Expression. The CASQ was used in this study to evaluate changes in attitudes over a semester for students who were participating in service-learning through an academic course. A comparison group of students not doing Service-Learning was obtained from either the same courses or from courses attracting students similar to the service-learners in academic discipline and year in college. The Office of Service-learning (OSL) at Tulane University provides a broad range of services to faculty, students, and community partners participating in service-learning. Each OSL program coordinator is responsible for eight to nine courses (total approximately 120 students) per semester. Service-learning is a relatively recent development at this University, with numerous faculty members beginning their first experience with service-learning each semester. Program coordinators consult with faculty members as they develop service-learning courses and work with community agency representatives to plan service activities that will complement the faculty member's course goals while providing a useful service to the agency. The OSL staff members arrange training sessions and on-site orientations, monitor students' service activities throughout the semester, and communicate regularly with students, faculty, and community site representatives, so that any developing difficulties can be handled quickly. To help students make connections between the course and service experiences, the program coordinators organize reflection sessions at the OSL and collaborate with faculty members, upon request, to facilitate classroom reflection sessions. Most program coordinators are recent college graduates who have had extensive experience working in community agencies and are highly committed to the program goals, so that the support level for all constituents is high. Students carry out their service-learning activities for approximately 10 weeks during the semester, spending 2-4 hours each week at the community site. University students in the program are predominately white (see Table 1), from middle and upper-middle class backgrounds, and most sites where they work serve individuals from a low-income African American community. Training sessions, provided early in the semester by OSL staff and community site representatives, help students understand issues such as university-community relationships that may affect their community experiences, and also help them develop specific skills for working in community settings (e. …

http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/p/pod/dod-idx?c=mjcsl;idno=3239521.0009.102

Changes in College Students' Attitudes and Intentions for Civic Involvement as a Function of Service-Learning Experiences.

Stukas, Clary, and Snyder (1999) conclude their review of service-learning programs and research with the suggestion: "... that evaluations be carefully constructed to assess the effects of service-learning for all involved--with an emphasis on rigorous experimental and survey methodology." Stukas et al. organize their review of service-learning outcomes around six major goals, including three that are the focus of the present research: Students who participate in service-learning may show increases in Self-Enhancement (self-esteem, personal efficacy, and confidence), Understanding of Self and World (personal growth, development of moral reasoning, empathic understanding, and attitudes toward diverse groups in society), and Value-Expression (expression of humanitarian and prosocial values through action and plans for future involvement in community service). The present study reports on the development of a questionnaire to assess students' self-evaluations concerning attitudes, skills and behavioral intentions that may be affected by service-learning participation. Items tapped aspects of the three goals that Stukas et al. described in their review. Measures typically used to assess service-learning outcomes have included various techniques: journal writings (Primavera, 1999; Yates & Youniss, 1996), interviews (Eyler & Giles, 1999), focus groups (Schmiede, 1995), and, especially, questionnaires in which students express agreement or disagreement with statements concerning their attitudes, beliefs, and self-evaluations. Such questionnaires have been used since the first service-learning program evaluations were undertaken. For example, Markus, Howard, and King (1993) and Kendrick (1996) used the Social Responsibility Inventory, developed by Howard and MacKeachie, to assess students' attitudes before and after participation in a service-learning course. Major constructs measured with this inventory were social responsibility (rating the importance of beliefs and activities such as equal opportunity for all and volunteer efforts) and personal efficacy for community change (Kendrick, 1996). Giles and Eyler (1994) used items from this inventory, with those from Astin (1992), to assess service-learning outcomes. These studies usually focused on students' responses to individual questionnaire items; none reported efforts to assess the reliability or validity of measures. Recently, questionnaires' psychometric aspects have received greater attention. For instance, Eyler, Giles, and Braxton (1997) developed a questionnaire to obtain college students' self-assessments of characteristics that might be affected by participation in service-learning, including citizenship skills (skills for political action, communication, ability to identify social issues, and tolerance), citizenship confidence (personal efficacy, belief that the community can be effective in solving its problems, and community connectedness), and social justice perceptions (locus of community problems, social justice, perspective-taking, and openness to other views). Most constructs were assessed by multiple items, so that internal consistency coefficients (Cronbach alpha) could be obtained; these were found to range from .46 to .80. Shiarella, McCarthy, and Tucker (2000) described developing the Community Service Attitudes Scale (CSIPI), which measures college students' attitudes about community service from the perspective of Schwartz' helping behavior model. Shiarella et al. used factor analyses to construct scales and reported internal consistency coefficients ranging from .53 to .90 for the several scales included on the CSIPI. The present study reports on developing the Civic Attitudes and Skills Questionnaire (CASQ), on which college students can describe attitudes and skills that may be affected by a service-learning experience. Factor analysis was used to identify groups of related items on an initial form of the questionnaire (Comrey, 1988). …

http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/p/pod/dod-idx/psychometric-properties-and-correlates-of-the-civic.pdf?c=mjcsl;idno=3239521.0008.202

Psychometric Properties and Correlates of the Civic Attitudes and Skills Questionnaire (CASQ): A Measure of Students' Attitudes Related to Service-Learning.

Examined the role of availability of family support in moderating the negative effects of exposure to community violence on internalizing symptoms. Participants were 75 low-income African American children between the ages of 10 and 15. Two measures of availability of family support (mother's presence in the home and family size) were evaluated as moderators of the relations between exposure to community violence and depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. After controlling for age, sex, and concurrent life stress, mother's presence in the home moderated the relation between exposure to community violence and depressive symptoms but not the relation between exposure to community violence and PTSD symptoms. Children living in mother-absent families were at increased risk of depressive symptoms as exposure to community violence increased. In addition, family size approached significance as a moderator of depressive symptoms but not PTSD symptoms, revealing a trend toward children from smaller families being at increased risk of depressive symptoms as exposure to community violence increased. These findings suggest that although availability of family support is an important moderator for depressive symptoms, this is not the case for PTSD symptoms.

Barbara E. Moely

Papers

Service-Learning and Engagement, Academic Challenge, and Retention

Changes in College Students' Attitudes and Intentions for Civic Involvement as a Function of Service-Learning Experiences.

Psychometric Properties and Correlates of the Civic Attitudes and Skills Questionnaire (CASQ): A Measure of Students' Attitudes Related to Service-Learning.

Availability of family support as a moderator of exposure to community violence.

Motivational Beliefs, Study Strategies, and Mathematics Attainment in High- and Low-Achieving Chinese Secondary School Students.