As a social species, humans rely on a safe, secure social surround to survive and thrive. Perceptions of social isolation, or loneliness, increase vigilance for threat and heighten feelings of vulnerability while also raising the desire to reconnect. Implicit hypervigilance for social threat alters psychological processes that influence physiological functioning, diminish sleep quality, and increase morbidity and mortality. The purpose of this paper is to review the features and consequences of loneliness within a comprehensive theoretical framework that informs interventions to reduce loneliness. We review physical and mental health consequences of loneliness, mechanisms for its effects, and effectiveness of extant interventions. Features of a loneliness regulatory loop are employed to explain cognitive, behavioral, and physiological consequences of loneliness and to discuss interventions to reduce loneliness. Loneliness is not simply being alone. Interventions to reduce loneliness and its health consequences may need to take into account its attentional, confirmatory, and memorial biases as well as its social and behavioral effects.

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Loneliness Matters: A Theoretical and Empirical Review of Consequences and Mechanisms

The clinical significance of loneliness: a literature review.

Social and demographic trends are placing an increasing number of adults at risk for loneliness, an established risk factor for physical and mental illness. The growing costs of loneliness have led to a number of loneliness reduction interventions. Qualitative reviews have identified four primary intervention strategies: (a) improving social skills, (b) enhancing social support, (c) increasing opportunities for social contact, and (d) addressing maladaptive social cognition. An integrative meta-analysis of loneliness reduction interventions was conducted to quantify the effects of each strategy and to examine the potential role of moderator variables. Results revealed that single-group pre-post and nonrandomized comparison studies yielded larger mean effect sizes relative to randomized comparison studies. Among studies that used the latter design, the most successful interventions addressed maladaptive social cognition. This is consistent with current theories regarding loneliness and its etiology. Theoretical and methodological issues associated with designing new loneliness reduction interventions are discussed.

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A Meta-Analysis of Interventions to Reduce Loneliness:

The health and well-being consequences of social isolation and loneliness in old age are increasingly being recognised The purpose of this scoping review was to take stock of the available evidence and to highlight gaps and areas for future research We searched nine databases for empirical papers investigating the impact of social isolation and/or loneliness on a range of health outcomes in old age Our search, conducted between July and September 2013 yielded 11,736 articles, of which 128 items from 15 countries were included in the scoping review Papers were reviewed, with a focus on the definitions and measurements of the two concepts, associations and causal mechanisms, differences across population groups and interventions The evidence is largely US-focused, and loneliness is more researched than social isolation A recent trend is the investigation of the comparative effects of social isolation and loneliness Depression and cardiovascular health are the most often researched outcomes, followed by well-being Almost all (but two) studies found a detrimental effect of isolation or loneliness on health However, causal links and mechanisms are difficult to demonstrate, and further investigation is warranted We found a paucity of research focusing on at-risk sub-groups and in the area of interventions Future research should aim to better link the evidence on the risk factors for loneliness and social isolation and the evidence on their impact on health

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Social isolation, loneliness and health in old age: a scoping review.

Loneliness within a nomological net: An evolutionary perspective

This article is a review of the current literature on loneliness. The relationship of loneliness to other variables, the major characteristics of the experience of loneliness, and a definition of loneliness for counseling are described. The unidimensional and multidimensional perspectives of the loneliness experience are illustrated, with special focus on how they relate to loneliness measurement. The incidence of loneliness among various populations is also discussed. Finally, treatment strategies for loneliness, which highlight cognitivebehavioral therapy, social skills training, and social support are provided, followed by suggestions and implications for counseling practice and research.

Loneliness: A Review of Current Literature, With Implications for Counseling and Research

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships among types of loneliness and learned resourcefulness, self-esteem, and gender among a sample of college students. The Revised University of California, Los Angeles, Loneliness Scale (R-UCLA), Rosenbaum's Self-Control Schedule, a measure of learned resourcefulness, and Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale were administered to 625 college students. Previous factor analyses of the R-UCLA revealed that it measures 2 distinct types of loneliness: intimate loneliness and social loneliness. Results of multiple regression analyses revealed that self-esteem and gender significantly predicted the experience of global loneliness (as measured by the full-scale R-UCLA), intimate loneliness, and social loneliness. Learned resourcefulness significantly predicted social loneliness only. Implications for college student counseling and future research are discussed.

Loneliness, Learned Resourcefulness, and Self‐Esteem in College Students

The Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale (R-UCLA) is described and used as a unidimensional measure of loneliness; conceptualizing and assessing loneliness as a unitary, global experience. The present study suggests that the R-UCLA is a multidimensional measure of loneliness that assesses more than one construct of the loneliness experience. Results of principal axis factor analysis suggest that the R-UCLA measures three dimensions of loneliness: loneliness related to (a) “intimate others,” (b) “social others,” and (c) the “affiliative environment.” These findings may affect the utilization of the R-UCLA in future assessment, research, and intervention. These implications are discussed.

Factor analysis of the revised UCLA loneliness scale

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of two cognitive-behavioral interventions whose contents were matched to distinct types of loneliness (intimate and social) derived from empirical and theoretical literature and from a factor analysis of theRevised UCLA Loneliness Scale. Screened participants were assessed on measures varying in theoretical relevance to the treatment conditions. The hypotheses were that each treatment would favorably influence measures of high theoretical relevance (e.g., the social loneliness treatment would reflect changes on measures of social loneliness) and would have comparatively lesser effects on measures of lower theoretical relevance. Analysis of Covariance on pre-, post- and follow-up data indicated that the social loneliness treatment significantly decreased both intimate and social loneliness in the absence of differences on control variables. Issues relevant to the construct validity of the distinct treatments are discussed.

Construct validity of cognitive-behavioral treatments for intimate and social loneliness

Effective support services for the learning disabled university student are outlined.

Benedict T. McWhirter

Papers

Loneliness: A Review of Current Literature, With Implications for Counseling and Research

Loneliness, Learned Resourcefulness, and Self‐Esteem in College Students

Factor analysis of the revised UCLA loneliness scale

Construct validity of cognitive-behavioral treatments for intimate and social loneliness

University Survival Strategies and the Learning Disabled College Student