General Aspects.- Systematics.- Biology of Mosquitoes.- Medical Importance of Mosquitoes.- Mosquito Research Techniques.- Morphology of Mosquitoes.- Identification Keys Morphology Ecology and Distribution of European Species.- Key to Female Mosquitoes.- Key to Male Mosquitoes.- Key to Mosquito Fourth Instar Larvae.- Subfamily Anophelinae.- Subfamily Culicinae.- Identification Keys, Morphology, Ecology and Distribution of Important Vector and Nuisance Species - Worldwide.- Africa.- Asia.- Australia.- Central and South America.- North America.- Control of Mosquitoes.- Biological Control.- Environmental Management of Mosquitoes.- Chemical Control.- Physical Control.- Genetic Control of Mosquitoes.- Personal Protection.- Implementation and Integration of Mosquito Control Measures.

Mosquitoes and their Control

The number of mosquito-borne viruses (‘moboviruses’) occurring in Europe since the twentieth century now stands at ten; they belong to three families—Togaviridae (Sindbis, Chikungunya), Flaviviridae (West Nile, Usutu, Dengue), and Bunyaviridae (Batai, Ťahyňa, Snowshoe hare, Inkoo, Lednice). Several of them play a definite role in human or animal pathology (Sindbis, Chikungunya, Dengue, West Nile, Ťahyňa). Mobovirus outbreaks are strictly determined by the presence and/or import of particular competent vectors of the disease. Ecological variables affect moboviruses considerably; the main factors are population density of mosquito vectors and their vertebrate hosts, intense summer precipitations or floods, summer temperatures and drought, and presence of appropriate habitats, e.g., wetlands, small water pools, or intravillan sewage systems. A surveillance for moboviruses and the diseases they cause in Europe is recommendable, because the cases may often pass unnoticed or misdiagnosed not only in free-living vertebrates but also in domestic animals and even in humans.

Mosquito-borne viruses in Europe

Both density-mediated and trait-mediated indirect biotic interactions may be important in structuring communities. Indirect interactions in many study systems remain unexplored; in part, because they are often difficult to detect, and in many instances, have been identified empirically only when unexpected results arise. Indirect effects induced by competition may be particularly important among organisms with complex life cycles, wherein competitive effects experienced in one life stage influence species interactions in one or more subsequent stages. We determined whether species-specific effects of larval competition in the mosquitoes Aedes albopictus and Aedes aegypti have indirect effects at the adult stage, specifically testing for effects on arboviral infection with Sindbis virus (SINV). For A. albopictus, but not for A. aegypti, competition resulted in greater infection, body titer, and dissemination rates compared to low-competition conditions. Whole body titers of virus increased with adult size irrespective of competition. However, between competitive treatments, mosquitoes from low-competition conditions had greater mean size, with lower infection rates and lower whole body titers than the smaller mosquitoes from high-competition conditions. These results suggest that larval competition, common in natural mosquito populations, has important indirect effects on adults by altering mosquito-virus interactions. Such indirect effects may change transmission parameters of pathogens.

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Larval competition differentially affects arbovirus infection in aedes mosquitoes.

Sindbis virus (SINV; family Togaviridae, genus Alphavirus) is an enveloped RNA virus widely distributed in Eurasia, Africa, Oceania and Australia. SINV is transmitted among its natural bird hosts via mosquitoes. Human disease caused by SINV infection has been reported mainly in South Africa and in Northern Europe. Vector mosquito abundance affects the annual incidence of SINV infections with occasional outbreaks of up to 1500 patients. Symptoms include fever, malaise, rash and musculoskeletal pain. In a significant portion of patients the debilitating musculoskeletal symptoms persist for years. Chronic disease after SINV infection shares many features with autoimmune diseases. Currently there is no specific treatment available. Recently SINV infections have been detected outside the previously known distribution range. In this article we will summarize the current knowledge on epidemiology, clinical disease and pathogenesis of SINV infection in man. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Sindbis virus as a human pathogen-epidemiology, clinical picture and pathogenesis.

Sindbis virus (SINV) is widespread in Europe, Africa, Australia, and Asia, but clinical infection occurs as epidemics in a few geographically restricted areas. We recently proved, by virus isolation from patients, that SINV is the causative agent of Pogosta disease, a mosquito-borne rash-arthritis occurring as larger epidemics every seventh year in Finland. Altogether, 86 patients with serologically verified SINV infection were recruited to the present study during the 2002 outbreak. We now describe in detail the duration, incidence, and characteristics of different symptoms; hematological parameters; antibody kinetics; and presence of SINV in different tissue samples. SINV RNA detection or virus isolation from blood and/or skin lesions was successful in 8 patients. Immunoglobulin (Ig) M antibodies became detectable within the first 8 days of illness, and IgG antibodies became detectable within the first 11 days of illness. During the acute phase of Pogosta disease, the typical symptoms were arthritis, itching rash, fatigue, mild fever, headache, and muscle pain. The most notable finding was that, in 50% of the patients, joint symptoms lasted for >12 months.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/info/30077832

Clinical and Laboratory Manifestations of Sindbis Virus Infection: Prospective Study, Finland, 2002–2003

One-hundred six birds of 14 species were inoculated with approximately 1027 plaqueforming units of Ockelbo virus and bled daily for 5 days to determine viremia levels. Virus was detected in birds of all 14 species tested (four Anseriformes, one Galliformes and nine Passeriformes). The onset of viremia occurred earlier and viral titers were higher in very young anseriforms and galliforms than in older birds. Adult passeriforms had Ockelbo viremias of higher titer and longer duration than did adult anseriforms. Viremia titers in adult birds of all three orders tested were sufficient to induce high transmission rates in enzootic mosquito vectors, and viremias in passeriforms could induce high transmission rates in bridging vectors as well. Passeriforms of the genera Turdus and Fringilla could serve as amplification hosts for Ockelbo virus based on the presently demonstrated viremia of high titer and long duration in these birds, and the previously demonstrated high prevalence of Ockelbo virus neutralizing an...

https://bioone.org/journals/Journal-of-Wildlife-Diseases/volume-29/issue-2/0090-3558-29.2.189/VIREMIA-IN-THREE-ORDERS-OF-BIRDS-ANSERIFORMES-GALLIFORMES-AND-PASSERIFORMES/10.7589/0090-3558-29.2.189.pdf

Bo Niklasson

Papers

Viremia in three orders of birds (anseriformes, galliformes and passeriformes) inoculated with ockelbo virus