The literature on blood pressure level and salt intake in a cross‐section of the world's populations is reviewed. Regression and correlation analysis suggest a direct linear relationship between these variables. In three pairs of genetically related primitive populations, higher blood pressures are observed in the more acculturated group in each set, with salt intake being higher in these as well. In more culturally homogeneous groups, particularly Japanese and Taiwanese, salt intake appears to be the major environmental factor affecting blood pressure. African populations are discussed in relation to type of economy, blood pressures being higher in agricultural groups than in hunters or herders. There are indications that salt intake is higher for agricultural groups. It is suggested that populations vary in their sensitivity to sodium as a result of past selection for superior salt retaining capacity in tropical peoples. It is further suggested that high blood pressures of American and West Indian black...

Blood pressure and dietary salt in human populations.

Endocrines and Osmoregulation

Sodium appetite, the behavioural drive to ingest salt, is stimulated by prolonged physiological sodium deficiency in many animal species. The same neural mechanisms that are responsible for sodium appetite in laboratory animals may influence human behaviour as well, with particular relevance to the dietary salt intake of patients with diseases such as heart failure, renal failure, liver failure and salt-sensitive hypertension. Since the original experimental work of Curt Richter in the 1930s, much has been learned about the regulation of salt-ingestive behaviour. Here, we review data from physiology, pharmacology, neuroanatomy and neurobehavioural investigations into the stimulatory and inhibitory signals that regulate sodium appetite. A rudimentary framework is proposed for the brain circuits that integrate peripheral information representing the need for sodium with neural signals for the gustatory detection of salt in order to drive a motivated ingestive response. Based on this model, areas of remaining uncertainty are highlighted where future information would allow a more detailed understanding of the neural circuitry responsible for sodium appetite.

https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1113/expphysiol.2007.039891

Central regulation of sodium appetite

In this paper I compare the reproductive systems and growth processes of mammals and reptiles and point out how the evolution of lactation and other kinds of parental feeding has made possible the development of complex teeth and jaw mechanisms, rapid growth to maturity and the evolution of social behavior; I also suggest that parental feeding may partly explain why the radiation of mammals and birds was favored by the climatic changes at the Cretaceous/Tertiary transition, which coincided with the extinction of the dinosaurs and other large reptiles. The universal and almost unique feature of mammalian reproduction is the production of secretions by the mother which nourish the offspring after birth, making the juvenile nutritionally dependent on the mother well after it is mechanically independent of her. From the point of view of the mother, the physiology and adaptive significance of lactation is quite different from that of viviparity, and the existence of the Monotremes indicates that the two processes did not necessarily evolve concurrently. In both processes the juvenile obtains all its nourishment from its mother; a free-living, nursing offspring is actually or potentially mechanically separate from its mother, but during pregnancy the two are permanently united. The lactation habit has important consequences upon the morphology, food gathering strategy and energy balance of the mother. The nursing juvenile is required only to

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1977.tb00995.x

The significance of lactation in the evolution of mammals.

This study tests hypotheses on the biochemical functions of geophagy in parrots: mechanical enhancement of digestion, acid buffering capacity, mineral supplementation, adsorption of dietary toxins, and gastrointestinal cytoprotection. Parrots showed clear preferences for specific soil horizons. Comparisons of preferred and nonpreferred soils from several sites suggest that soils have little ability to enhance grinding and no measurable ability to buffer gastric pH. Soils offered insignificant mineral supplementation since most minerals occurred at similar levels in samples regardless of preference, and the minerals were generally more plentiful in the birds' diets. Sodium was available in moderate levels at some sites (>1000 ppm), but was well below sodium detection thresholds of parrots. X-ray diffraction, cation exchange capacity, and in vitro adsorptive trials showed that the preferred soils are capable of exchanging substantial quantities of cations and are capable of adsorbing low-molecular-weight secondary compounds. In captive Amazona parrots, orally administered clay reduced the bioavailability of the alkaloid quinidine by roughly 60%, demonstrating that in vivo adsorption of potentially toxic compounds may be a biologically important function of geophagy. Labeled clay remained in the lower gastrointestinal tract of captive parrots for >12 hr, which along with high adsorptive capacities, further suggests a potential role in protecting the gastrointestinal lining from various biological and chemical insults. Detoxification and cytoprotection are the most likely functions of geophagy for parrots and herbivores with similar ecologies. Given the variety of chemically defended seeds consumed by these herbivores, geophagy likely protects consumers from dietary toxins, allowing increased diet breadth and/or enhancing digestibility.

Biochemical Functions of Geophagy in Parrots: Detoxification of Dietary Toxins and Cytoprotective Effects

Native Australian and introduced species of animals are adapted to severe sodium deficiency. Effects of such a deficiency are aggravated by pregnancy and lactation, and it has been shown that mechanisms controlling sodium homeostasis in wild rabbits are subject to profound stress.

Physiological, Morphological and Behavioural Adaptation to a Sodium Deficient Environment by Wild Native Australian and Introduced Species of Animals

BACKGROUND: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity and includes one of the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders in childhood. Despite the high prevalence, many professionals who work with children and adolescents with this disorder do not have enough knowledge on the subject. Physical education professionals deal directly with these children and need the knowledge to choose which skills and/or motor criteria to emphasize in their classes. However, issues related to neurodevelopmental disorders are not frequently addressed in the physical education courses, which impairs proper dealing with this population.
AIM: This study aims to verify the level of knowledge about ADHD and its motor impairments in professionals and students of physical education.
METHOD: A questionnaire was developed by researchers of motor behavior and was applied to professionals and students of physical education. The participants' responses were then analyzed through descriptive and inferential statistics.
RESULTS: The results indicate that although the volunteers have basic notions about the subject, they do not have enough preparation to deal with children with ADHD.
CONCLUSION: It was concluded that the knowledge about ADHD is insufficient and a reformulation in the curriculum of physical education courses is recommended.

https://socibracom.com/bjmb/index.php/bjmb/article/download/343/406

C. L. Junqueira

Papers

Physiological, Morphological and Behavioural Adaptation to a Sodium Deficient Environment by Wild Native Australian and Introduced Species of Animals

Knowledge of physical education professionals and students about ADHD and its motor impairments