https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/mers/downloads/Isolation2007.pdf

2007 Guideline for Isolation Precautions: Preventing Transmission of Infectious Agents in Health Care Settings.

Epidemiology, Genetic Recombination, and Pathogenesis of Coronaviruses

An outbreak of severe Kawasaki-like disease at the Italian epicentre of the SARS-CoV-2 epidemic: an observational cohort study.

Coronaviruses are a family of enveloped, single-stranded, positive-strand RNA viruses classified within the Nidovirales order. This coronavirus family consists of pathogens of many animal species and of humans, including the recently isolated severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV). This review is divided into two main parts; the first concerns the animal coronaviruses and their pathogenesis, with an emphasis on the functions of individual viral genes, and the second discusses the newly described human emerging pathogen, SARS-CoV. The coronavirus part covers (i) a description of a group of coronaviruses and the diseases they cause, including the prototype coronavirus, murine hepatitis virus, which is one of the recognized animal models for multiple sclerosis, as well as viruses of veterinary importance that infect the pig, chicken, and cat and a summary of the human viruses; (ii) a short summary of the replication cycle of coronaviruses in cell culture; (iii) the development and application of reverse genetics systems; and (iv) the roles of individual coronavirus proteins in replication and pathogenesis. The SARS-CoV part covers the pathogenesis of SARS, the developing animal models for infection, and the progress in vaccine development and antiviral therapies. The data gathered on the animal coronaviruses continue to be helpful in understanding SARS-CoV.

Coronavirus Pathogenesis and the Emerging Pathogen Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus

146. In: 16th Annual Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America. Chicago, Ill; 2006. 950. Harvey MA. Critical-care-unit bedside design and furnishing: impact on nosocomial infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1998;19(8):597­ 601. 951. Srinivasan A, Beck C, Buckley T, et al. The ability of hospital ventilation systems to filter Aspergillus and other fungi following a building implosion. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2002;23(9):520-4. 952. Maragakis LL, Bradley KL, Song X, et al. Increased catheter-related bloodstream infection rates after the introduction of a new mechanical valve intravenous access port. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2006;27(1):67-70. 953. Organizations JCoAoH. Comprehensive Accredication Manual for Hospitals: The Official Handbook. Oakbrook Terrace: JCAHO; 2007. 954. Peterson LR, Noskin GA. New technology for detecting multidrug­ resistant pathogens in the clinical microbiology laboratory. Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7(2):306-11. 955. Diekema DJ, Doebbeling BN. Employee health and infection control. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1995;16(5):292-301. 956. Rutala WA, Weber DJ, Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC). Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization in Health-Care Facilities. In preparation. 957. Weems JJ, Jr. Nosocomial outbreak of Pseudomonas cepacia associated with contamination of reusable electronic ventilator temperature probes. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1993;14(10):583-6. 958. Berthelot P, Grattard F, Mahul P, et al. Ventilator temperature sensors: an unusual source of Pseudomonas cepacia in nosocomial infection. J Hosp Infect 1993;25(1):33-43. 959. 959. CDC. Bronchoscopy-related infections and pseudoinfections--New York, 1996 and 1998. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 1999;48(26):557­ 60. 960. Heeg P, Roth K, Reichl R, Cogdill CP, Bond WW. Decontaminated single-use devices: an oxymoron that may be placing patients at risk for cross-contamination. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2001;22(9):542-9. 961. www.fda.gov/cdrh/reprocessing/ 962. CDC. Prevention and Control of Influenza: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Morbidity & Mortality Weekly Report 2003;52(RR08):1-36.

Guideline for isolation precautions: preventing transmission of infectious agents in healthcare settings 2007.

Kawasaki disease is a systemic vasculitis of childhood; its etiology is unknown. We identified evidence of a novel human coronavirus, designated "New Haven coronavirus" (HCoV-NH), in respiratory secretions from a 6-month-old infant with classic Kawasaki disease. To further investigate the possible association between HCoV-NH infection and Kawasaki disease, we conducted a case-control study. Specimens of respiratory secretions from 8 (72.7%) of 11 children with Kawasaki disease and from 1 (4.5%) of 22 control subjects (children without Kawasaki disease matched by age and the time the specimens were obtained) tested positive for HCoV-NH by reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (Mantel-Haenszel matched odds ratio, 16.0 [95% confidence interval, 3.4-74.4]; P=.0015). These data suggest that HCoV-NH infection is associated with Kawasaki disease.

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Association between a Novel Human Coronavirus and Kawasaki Disease

Background. Human bocavirus (HBoV) is a newly identified human parvovirus that was originally identified in the respiratory secretions of children with respiratory tract disease. To further investigate the epidemiological profile and clinical characteristics of HBoV infection, we screened infants and children <2 years of age (hereafter referred to as "children") for HBoV. Methods. Children for whom respiratory specimens submitted to a diagnostic laboratory tested negative for respiratory syncytial virus, parainfluenza viruses (types 1-3), influenza A and B viruses, and adenovirus, as well as asymptomatic children, underwent screening for HBoV by use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Respiratory specimens were obtained from the children from 1 January 2004 through 31 December 2004. Results. Twenty-two (5.2%) of the 425 children who had a respiratory specimen submitted to the diagnostic laboratory and 0 of the 96 asymptomatic children were found to be positive for HBoV by PCR (P =.02). Fever, rhinorrhea, cough, and wheezing were observed in ≥50% of the HBoV-positive children. Of the 17 children who had chest radiography performed, 12 (70.6%) had abnormal findings. HBoV appeared to have a seasonal distribution. Nucleotide polymorphisms were detected in the viral capsid protein (VP) 1/VP2 genes. Two distinct HBoV genotypes circulated during the study period. Conclusions. HBoV is circulating in the United States and is associated with both upper and lower respiratory tract disease in infants and young children.

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Human Bocavirus Infection in Young Children in the United States: Molecular Epidemiological Profile and Clinical Characteristics of a Newly Emerging Respiratory Virus

Objective. Respiratory tract infections are a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Recently, a newly identified human respiratory virus, human metapneumovirus (hMPV), was reported by investigators in the Netherlands. We sought to determine whether hMPV was circulating in our community and to determine the clinical features associated with hMPV infection. Methods. Respiratory specimens from children who were younger than 5 years and had a negative result for respiratory syncytial virus, influenza A and B, parainfluenza viruses 1 to 3, and adenovirus by direct fluorescent antibody test were screened for hMPV by reverse transcriptase–polymerase chain reaction. Samples were collected from October 30, 2001, to February 28, 2002. Results. Of the 296 patients screened, 19 (6.4%) had evidence of hMPV infection. hMPV was identified in patients with either upper or lower respiratory tract infection or both. Clinical manifestations included wheezing, hypoxia, and abnormal findings on chest radiographs (eg, focal infiltrates, peribronchial cuffing). Nosocomial infection occurred in at least 1 patient. Conclusions. hMPV is circulating in the United States and is associated with respiratory tract disease in patients with respiratory illnesses not caused by respiratory syncytial virus, influenza, parainfluenza viruses, and adenovirus. Additional studies are required to define the epidemiology and the extent of disease in the general population caused by hMPV.

Human metapneumovirus infection in the United States: clinical manifestations associated with a newly emerging respiratory infection in children.

Background. The etiological agents responsible for a substantial proportion of respiratory tract diseases have not been identified. We sought to determine whether novel human coronaviruses (HCoVs) are circulating in New Haven, Connecticut, and, if so, whether they are associated with respiratory tract disease in infants and young children. Methods. We developed a polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based approach for screening specimens from the respiratory tracts of symptomatic children. PCR probes that target regions of the replicase la gene that are conserved among genetically diverse animal CoVs and HCoVs were designed. Using these probes, we identified genomic sequences of a novel HCoV, designated New Haven coronavirus (HCoV-NH). Thereafter, we designed specific probes to screen respiratory specimens from children <5 years old for this novel HCoV. Clinical features associated with HCoV-NH infection were identified. Results. Seventy-nine (8.8%) of 895 children tested positive for HCoV-NH. Cough, rhinorrhea, tachypnea, fever, abnormal breath sounds, and hypoxia were the most common findings associated with HCoV-NH infection. Sequence analysis revealed that HCoV-NH is closely related to a novel HCoV recently reported in The Netherlands. Conclusions. The novel HCoVs identified in New Haven and The Netherlands are similar and likely represent the same species. This newly discovered virus may have worldwide distribution and may account for a significant proportion of respiratory tract disease in infants and young children.

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Evidence of a Novel Human Coronavirus That Is Associated with Respiratory Tract Disease in Infants and Young Children

Human metapneumovirus (hMPV) is a recently discovered respiratory pathogen. We tested respiratory specimens for the presence of hMPV by reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction. These specimens were obtained over a 1-year period from children aged <5 years and had negative results by the direct fluorescent antibody test for respiratory syncytial virus, influenza A and B, parainfluenza viruses 1-3, and adenovirus. Overall, 54 (8.1%) of 668 individuals tested positive for hMPV. During March and April of the study period, hMPV was detected in 17.6% and 25.0% of specimens tested, respectively. At least 2 distinct genotypes of hMPV circulated during the study period. Fever, tachypnea, cough, rhinorrhea, retractions of the chest wall, and wheezing were common findings. Of hMPV-positive children, 60.4% were aged <12 months. hMPV accounted for a small but significant proportion of respiratory-tract disease in infants and children.

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Carla Weibel

Papers

Association between a Novel Human Coronavirus and Kawasaki Disease

Human Bocavirus Infection in Young Children in the United States: Molecular Epidemiological Profile and Clinical Characteristics of a Newly Emerging Respiratory Virus

Human metapneumovirus infection in the United States: clinical manifestations associated with a newly emerging respiratory infection in children.

Evidence of a Novel Human Coronavirus That Is Associated with Respiratory Tract Disease in Infants and Young Children

A 1-Year Experience with Human Metapneumovirus in Children Aged <5 Years