INTRODUCTION. Internal Organization of the Plant Body. Summary of Types of Cells and Tissues. General References. DEVELOPMENT OF THE SEED PLANT. The Embryo. From embryo to the Adult Plant. Apical Meristems and Their Derivatives. Differentiation, Specialization, and Morphogenesis. References. THE CELL. Cytoplasm. Nucleus. Plastids. Mitochondria. Microbodies. Vacuoles. Paramural Bodies. Ribosomes. Dictyosomes. Endoplasmic Reticulum. Lipid Globules. Microtubules. Ergastic Substances. References. CELL WALL. Macromolecular Components and Their Organization in the Wall. Cell Wall Layers. Intercellular Spaces. Pits, Primary Pit--Fields, and Plasmodesmata. Origin of Cell Wall During Cell Division. Growth of Cell Wall. References. PARENCHYMA AND COLLENCHYMA. Parenchyma. Collenchyma. References. SCLERENCHYMA. Sclereids. Fibers. Development of Sclereids and Fibers. References. EPIDERMIS. Composition. Developmental Aspects. Cell Wall. Stomata. Trichomes. References. XYLEM: GENERAL STRUCTURE AND CELL TYPES. Gross Structure of Secondary Xylem. Cell Types in the Secondary Xylem. Primary Xylem. Differentiation of Tracheary Elements. References. XYLEM: VARIATION IN WOOD STRUCTURE. Conifer Wood. Dicotyledon Wood. Some Factors in Development of Secondary Xylem. Identification of Wood. References. VASCULAR CAMBIUM. Organization of Cambium. Developmental Changes in the Initial Layer. Patterns and Causal Relations in Cambial Activity. References. PHLOEM. Cell Types. Primary Phloem. Secondary Phloem. References. PERIDERM. Structure of Periderm and Related Tissues. Development of Periderm. Outer Aspect of Bark in Relation to Structure. Lenticels. References. SECRETORY STRUCTURES. External Secretory Structures. Internal Secretory Structures. References. THE ROOT: PRIMARY STATE OF GROWTH. Types of Roots. Primary Structure. Development. References. THE ROOT: SECONDARY STATE OF GROWTH AND ADVENTITIOUS ROOTS. Common Types of Secondary Growth. Variations in Secondary Growths. Physiologic Aspects of Secondary Growth in Roots. Adventitious Roots. References. THE STEM: PRIMARY STATE OF GROWTH. External Morphology. Primary Structure. Development. References. THE STEM: SECONDARY GROWTH AND STRUCTURAL TYPES. Secondary Growth. Types of Stems. References. THE LEAF: BASIC STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT. Morphology. Histology of Angiosperm Leaf. Development. Abscission. References. THE LEAF: VARIATIONS IN STRUCTURE. Leaf Structure and Environment. Dicotyledon Leaves. Monocotyledon Leaves. Gymnosperm Leaves. References. THE FLOWER: STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT. Concept. Structure. Development. References. THE FLOWER: REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE. Microsporogenesis. Pollen. Male Gametophyte. Megasporogenesis. Female Gametophyte. Fertilization. References. THE FRUIT. Concept and Classification. The Fruit Wall. Fruit Types. Fruit Growths. Fruit Abscission. References. THE SEED. Concept and Morphology. Seed Development. Seed Coat. Nutrient Storage Tissues. References. EMBRYO AND SEEDLING. Mature Embryo. Development of Embryo. Classification of Embryos. Seedling. References. Glossary. Index.

Anatomy of Seed Plants

OCBIL theory aims to develop an integrated series of hypotheses explaining the evolution and ecology of, and best conservation practices for, biota on very old, climatically buffered, infertile landscapes (OCBILs). Conventional theory for ecology and evolutionary and conservation biology has developed primarily from data on species and communities from young, often disturbed, fertile landscapes (YODFELs), mainly in the Northern Hemisphere. OCBILs are rare, but are prominent in the Southwest Australian Floristic Region, South Africa’s Greater Cape, and Venezuela’s Pantepui Highlands. They may have been more common globally before Pleistocene glaciations. Based on the premise that natural selection has favoured limited dispersability of sedentary organisms, OCBILs should have elevated persistence of lineages (Gondwanan Heritage Hypothesis) and long-lived individuals (Ultimate Self Hypothesis), high numbers of localised rare endemics and strongly differentiated population systems. To counter such natural fragmentation and inbreeding due to small population size, ecological, cytogenetic and genetic mechanisms selecting for the retention of heterozygosity should feature (the James Effect). The climatic stability of OCBILs should be paralleled by persistence of adjacent semi-arid areas, conducive to speciation (Semiarid Cradle Hypothesis). Special nutritional and other biological traits associated with coping with infertile lands should be evident, accentuated in plants, for example, through water-foraging strategies, symbioses, carnivory, pollination and parasitism. The uniquely flat landscapes of southwestern Australia have had prolonged presence of saline lakes along palaeoriver systems favouring evolution of accentuated tolerance to salinity. Lastly, unusual resiliences and vulnerabilities might be evident among OCBIL organisms, such as enhanced abilities to persist in small fragmented populations but great susceptibility to major soil disturbances. In those places where it is most pertinent, OCBIL theory hopefully lays a foundation for future research and for better informed conservation management.

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OCBIL theory: towards an integrated understanding of the evolution, ecology and conservation of biodiversity on old, climatically buffered, infertile landscapes

Background
At present, plant molecular systematics and DNA barcoding techniques rely heavily on the use of chloroplast gene sequences Because of the relatively low evolutionary rates of chloroplast genes, there are very few choices suitable for molecular studies on angiosperms at low taxonomic levels, and for DNA barcoding of species

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Highly variable chloroplast markers for evaluating plant phylogeny at low taxonomic levels and for DNA barcoding.

/pdf/mistletoes-pathology-systematics-ecology-and-management-ohmrgvoq0v.pdf

Mistletoes: Pathology, Systematics, Ecology, and Management

Plant-Animal Interactions: Evolutionary Ecology in Tropical and Temperate Regions

Pollination by sexual deception is arguably one of the most unusual liaisons linking plants and insects, and perhaps the most illustrative example of extreme floral specialization in angiosperms. While considerable progress has been made in understanding the floral traits involved in sexual deception, less is known about how this remarkable mimicry system might have arisen, the role of pre-adaptations in promoting its evolution and its extent as a pollination mechanism outside the few groups of plants (primarily orchids) where it has been described to date. In the Euro-Mediterranean region, pollination by sexual deception is traditionally considered to be the hallmark of the orchid genus Ophrys. Here, we introduce two new cases outside of Ophrys, in plant groups dominated by generalized, shelter-mimicking species. On the basis of phylogenetic reconstructions of ancestral pollination strategies, we provide evidence for independent and bidirectional evolutionary transitions between generalized (shelter mimicry) and specialized (sexual deception) pollination strategies in three groups of flowering plants, and suggest that pseudocopulation has evolved from pre-adaptations (floral colours, shapes and odour bouquets) that selectively attract male pollinators through shelter mimicry. These findings, along with comparative analyses of floral traits (colours and scents), shed light on particular phenotypic changes that might have fuelled the parallel evolution of these extraordinary pollination strategies. Collectively, our results provide the first substantive insights into how pollination sexual deception might have evolved in the Euro-Mediterranean region, and demonstrate that even the most extreme cases of pollinator specialization can reverse to more generalized interactions, breaking 'Cope's rule of specialization'.

/pdf/pre-adaptations-and-the-evolution-of-pollination-by-sexual-2oppfb0q4v.pdf

Pre-adaptations and the evolution of pollination by sexual deception: Cope's rule of specialization revisited

Subgeneric classification in Iris re-examined using chloroplast sequence data

Comparative morphology of epicortical roots in Old and New World Loranthaceae with reference to root types, origin, patterns of longitudinal extension and potential for clonal growth

Phylogenetic relationships among the 16 series within Iris section Limniris were reconstructed based on chloroplast sequence data using maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference methods. Section Limniris is polyphyletic as currently delineated because series Spuriae, Foetidissimae, Syriacae, Longipetalae, Vernae, Unguiculares, and some elements of Tenuifoliae are placed outside of the core group of Limniris species. The most inclusive monophyletic clade of Limniris species includes the series Californicae, Sibiricae, Laevigatae, Tripetalae, Prismaticae, Ensatae, Ruthenicae, Hexagonae, and Chinenses, and I. songarica. Within the core Limniris clade series Sibiricae, Tripetalae, and Chinenses are polyphyletic whereas Laevigatae is paraphyletic. With one exception, species within the core Limniris group are distributed in either Asia or North America, with a few Asian species extending into Europe and for the most widespread species, Iris pseudacorus (series Laevigatae), into northern Africa with na...

Phylogenetic Relationships Among the Recognized Series in Iris Section Limniris

The large mistletoe family, Loranthaceae, contains 75 genera and approximately 1000 species. The family originated in the Southern Hemisphere and dispersed, apparently early, between fragments of Gondwana. It is now widely distributed on land surfaces of the former supercontinent. The Loranthaceae has three terrestrial, root-parasitic genera-a habit considered ancestral-and 72 genera of aerial, branch parasites. For almost two centuries, the origin of the mistletoe habit has been of interest to biologists. Two main evolutionary pathways have been proposed to explain the transition from terrestrial to aerial parasitism in the family. One theorizes the presence of an intermediate climbing ancestor in the path to the aerial habit. The other proposes a direct transfer from terrestrial to epiphytic growth following the germination of seeds on tree branches. Here we present molecular and morphological evidence that (1) the terrestrial species Nuytsia floribunda is ancestral within the Loranthaceae, (2) aerial parasitism has had multiple origins in the family, (3) the first aerial branch parasites had epicortical roots, and (4) the origin of aerial parasitism in one Old World clade involved the direct transfer from terrestrial to epiphytic growth following the germination of seeds on tree branches. Our results suggest that it is not necessary to evoke a climbing intermediate in the origins of aerial parasitism in the Santalales.

https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.3732/ajb.93.5.787

Carol A. Wilson

Papers

Pre-adaptations and the evolution of pollination by sexual deception: Cope's rule of specialization revisited

Subgeneric classification in Iris re-examined using chloroplast sequence data

Comparative morphology of epicortical roots in Old and New World Loranthaceae with reference to root types, origin, patterns of longitudinal extension and potential for clonal growth

Phylogenetic Relationships Among the Recognized Series in Iris Section Limniris

An origin of aerial branch parasitism in the mistletoe family, Loranthaceae