Preface to the Princeton Landmarks in Biology Edition vii Preface xi Symbols Used xiii 1. The Importance of Islands 3 2. Area and Number of Speicies 8 3. Further Explanations of the Area-Diversity Pattern 19 4. The Strategy of Colonization 68 5. Invasibility and the Variable Niche 94 6. Stepping Stones and Biotic Exchange 123 7. Evolutionary Changes Following Colonization 145 8. Prospect 181 Glossary 185 References 193 Index 201

The Theory of Island Biogeography

Species richness is a fundamental measurement of community and regional diversity, and it underlies many ecological models and conservation strategies. In spite of its importance, ecologists have not always appreciated the effects of abundance and sampling effort on richness measures and comparisons. We survey a series of common pitfalls in quantifying and comparing taxon richness. These pitfalls can be largely avoided by using accumulation and rarefaction curves, which may be based on either individuals or samples. These taxon sampling curves contain the basic information for valid richness comparisons, including category‐subcategory ratios (species-to-genus and species-toindividual ratios). Rarefaction methods ‐ both sample-based and individual-based ‐ allow for meaningful standardization and comparison of datasets. Standardizing data sets by area or sampling effort may produce very different results compared to standardizing by number of individuals collected, and it is not always clear which measure of diversity is more appropriate. Asymptotic richness estimators provide lower-bound estimates for taxon-rich groups such as tropical arthropods, in which observed richness rarely reaches an asymptote, despite intensive sampling. Recent examples of diversity studies of tropical trees, stream invertebrates, and herbaceous plants emphasize the importance of carefully quantifying species richness using taxon sampling curves.

/pdf/quantifying-biodiversity-procedures-and-pitfalls-in-the-2ut2f3nw4g.pdf

Quantifying biodiversity: procedures and pitfalls in the measurement and comparison of species richness

https://www.cns.nyu.edu/~msl/courses/2223/Readings/Rosch-CogPsych1976.pdf

Basic objects in natural categories

McGarigal, Kevin; Marks, Barbara J. 1995. FRAGSTATS: spatial pattern analysis program for quantifying landscape structure. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-351. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 122 p. This report describes a program, FRAGSTATS, developed to quantify landscape structure. FRAGSTATS offers a comprehensive choice of landscape metrics and was designed to be as versatile as possible. The program is almost completely automated and thus requires little technical training. Two separate versions of FRAGSTATS exist: one for vector images and one for raster images. The vector version is an Arc/Info AML that accepts Arc/Info polygon coverages. The raster version is a C program that accepts ASCII image files, 8or 16-bit binary image files, Arc/Info SVF files, Erdas image files, and IDRISI image files. Both versions of FRAGSTATS generate the same array of metrics, including a variety of area metrics, patch density, size and variability metrics, edge metrics, shape metrics, core area metrics, diversity metrics, and contagion and interspersion metrics. The raster version also computes several nearest neighbor metrics. In this report, each metric calculated by FRAGSTATS is described in terms of its ecological application and limitations. Example landscapes are included, and a discussion is provided of each metric as it relates to the sample landscapes. Several important concepts and definitions critical to the assessment of landscape structure are discussed. The appendices include a complete list of algorithms, the units and ranges of each metric, examples of the FRAGSTATS output files, and a users guide describing how to install and run FRAGSTATS.

https://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/pnw_gtr351.pdf

FRAGSTATS: spatial pattern analysis program for quantifying landscape structure

. Abstract Research on fragmented ecosystems has focused mostly on the biogeograpbic consequences of the creation of habitat “islands” of different sizes and has provided little of practical value to managers. However, ecosystem fragmentation causes large changes in the physical environment as well as biogeograpbic changes. Fragmentation generally results in a landscape that consists of remnant areas of native vegetation surrounded by a matrix of agricultural or other developed land. As a result fluxes of radiation, momentum (La, wind), water, and nutrients across the landscape are altered significantly. These in turn can have important influences on biota within remnant areas, especially at or near the edge between the remnant and the surrounding matrix. The isolation of remnant areas by clearing also has important consequences for the biota. These consequences vary with the time since isolation distance from other remnants, and degree of connectivity with other remnants. The influences of physical and biogeographic changes are modified by the size, shape, and position in the landscape of individual remnant, with larger remnants being less adversely affected by the fragmentation process. The Dynamics of remnant areas are predominantly driven by factors arising in the surrounding landscape. Management of, and research on, fragmented ecosystems should be directed at understanding and controlling these external influences as much as at the biota of the remnants themselves. There is a strong need to develop an integrated approach to landscape management that places conservation reserves in the context of the overall landscape

Biological consequences of ecosystem fragmentation: a review

Using data from the North American Breeding Bird Survey, we determined that most neotropical migrant bird species that breed in forests of the eastern United States and Canada have recently (1978-1987) declined in abundance after a period of stable or increasing populations. Most permanent residents and temperate-zone migrants did not show a general pattern of decrease during this period. Field data from Mexico were used to classify a subset of the neotropical migrants as using forest or scrub habitats during winter. Population declines during 1978-1987 were significantly greater among the forest-wintering species, while populations of scrub-wintering species increased. The same subset of neotropical migrants also showed overall declines in forest-breeding species, but no significant differences existed between species breeding in forest and scrub habitats. Neotropical migrant species that primarily use forested habitats in either wintering or breeding areas are declining, but a statistically significant association between habitat and population declines was detected only in the tropics.

/pdf/population-declines-in-north-american-birds-that-migrate-to-4rc8gfc0k1.pdf

Population declines in North American birds that migrate to the neotropics.

Conservation of birds requires an understanding of their nesting requirements, including area as well as structural characteristics of the habitat Previous studies have shown that many neotropical migrant bird species seem to depend on extensive forested areas, but the specific area requirements of individual species have not been clarified sufflciently to aid in design and management of effective preserves For this S-year study, bird and vegetation data were obtained at 469 points in forests ranging in area from 01 ha to more than 3,000 ha in Maryland and adjacent states Data were analyzed first by stepwise regression to identify habitat factors that had the greatest influence on relative abundance of each bird species In the relatively undisturbed mature forests studied, degree of isolation and area were significant predictors of relative abundance for more bird species than were any habitat variables For species for which forest area was a significant predictor of abundance} we used logistic regression to examine the relationship between fcxrest area aIld the probability of detecting the species In managing forest lands for wildlifel top priority should go toward providing for the needs of areasensitive or rare species rather than increasing species diversity per se Avian species that occur in small and disturbed forests are generalists that are adapted to survival under edge conditions and need no special assistance frorn man Forest reserves with thousands of hectares are required to have the highest probability of providing for the least common species of forest birds in a region However, if preservation of large contiguous forest tracts is not a realistic optionS results of this study suggest 2 alternative approaches First, if other habitat attributes also are eonsidered smaller forests may provide suitable breeding sites for relatively rare species Second7 smaller tracts in close proximity to other forests may serve to attract or retain area-

Habitat area requirements of breeding forest birds of the middle Atlantic states

Effects of forest fragmentation on avifauna of the eastern deciduous forest

: The Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) is an ongoing cooperative program sponsored jointly by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Canadian Wildlife Service. Its main purpose is to estimate population trends of the many species of birds that nest in North America north of Mexico and that migrate across international boundaries. This survey provides information, both locally by ecological or political regions and on a continental scale.

The Breeding Bird Survey: Its First Fifteen Years, 1965-1979,

DENSITY: software for analysing capture–recapture data from passive detector arrays.— A general computer–intensive method is described for fitting spatial detection functions to capture–recapture data from arrays of passive detectors such as live traps and mist nets. The method is used to estimate the population density of 10 species of breeding birds sampled by mist–netting in deciduous forest at Patuxent Research Refuge, Laurel, Maryland, U.S.A., from 1961 to 1972. Total density (9.9 ± 0.6 ha –1 mean ± SE) appeared to decline over time (slope –0.41 ± 0.15 ha –1 y –1 ). The mean precision of annual estimates for all 10 species pooled was acceptable ( = 14%). Spatial analysis of closed–population capture– recapture data highlighted deficiencies in non–spatial methodologies. For example, effective trapping area cannot be assumed constant when detection probability is variable. Simulation may be used to evaluate alternative designs for mist net arrays where density estimation is a study goal.

/pdf/density-software-for-analysing-capture-recapture-data-from-1p5f4mx44x.pdf

Chandler S. Robbins

Papers

Population declines in North American birds that migrate to the neotropics.

Habitat area requirements of breeding forest birds of the middle Atlantic states

Effects of forest fragmentation on avifauna of the eastern deciduous forest

The Breeding Bird Survey: Its First Fifteen Years, 1965-1979,

DENSITY: software for analysing capture-recapture data from passive detector arrays