抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

I have developed "tennis elbow" from lugging this book around the past four weeks, but it is worth the pain, the effort, and the aspirin. It is also worth the (relatively speaking) bargain price. Including appendixes, this book contains 894 pages of text. The entire panorama of the neural sciences is surveyed and examined, and it is comprehensive in its scope, from genomes to social behaviors. The editors explicitly state that the book is designed as "an introductory text for students of biology, behavior, and medicine," but it is hard to imagine any audience, interested in any fragment of neuroscience at any level of sophistication, that would not enjoy this book. The editors have done a masterful job of weaving together the biologic, the behavioral, and the clinical sciences into a single tapestry in which everyone from the molecular biologist to the practicing psychiatrist can find and appreciate his or

Principles of Neural Science

Behavioral scientists routinely publish broad claims about human psychology and behavior in the world's top journals based on samples drawn entirely from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) societies. Researchers - often implicitly - assume that either there is little variation across human populations, or that these "standard subjects" are as representative of the species as any other population. Are these assumptions justified? Here, our review of the comparative database from across the behavioral sciences suggests both that there is substantial variability in experimental results across populations and that WEIRD subjects are particularly unusual compared with the rest of the species - frequent outliers. The domains reviewed include visual perception, fairness, cooperation, spatial reasoning, categorization and inferential induction, moral reasoning, reasoning styles, self-concepts and related motivations, and the heritability of IQ. The findings suggest that members of WEIRD societies, including young children, are among the least representative populations one could find for generalizing about humans. Many of these findings involve domains that are associated with fundamental aspects of psychology, motivation, and behavior - hence, there are no obvious a priori grounds for claiming that a particular behavioral phenomenon is universal based on sampling from a single subpopulation. Overall, these empirical patterns suggests that we need to be less cavalier in addressing questions of human nature on the basis of data drawn from this particularly thin, and rather unusual, slice of humanity. We close by proposing ways to structurally re-organize the behavioral sciences to best tackle these challenges.

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The WEIRDest People in the World

Attachment--and loss.

How we raise young children is one of today's most highly personalized and sharply politicized issues, in part because each of us can claim some level of "expertise." The debate has intensified as discoveries about our development-in the womb and in the first months and years-have reached the popular media. How can we use our burgeoning knowledge to assure the well-being of all young children, for their own sake as well as for the sake of our nation? Drawing from new findings, this book presents important conclusions about nature-versus-nurture, the impact of being born into a working family, the effect of politics on programs for children, the costs and benefits of intervention, and other issues. The committee issues a series of challenges to decision makers regarding the quality of child care, issues of racial and ethnic diversity, the integration of children's cognitive and emotional development, and more. Authoritative yet accessible, From Neurons to Neighborhoods presents the evidence about "brain wiring" and how kids learn to speak, think, and regulate their behavior. It examines the effect of the climate-family, child care, community-within which the child grows.

/pdf/from-neurons-to-neighborhoods-the-science-of-early-childhood-3bfl5g72ow.pdf

From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development

Part I: Development and Context. Zeanah, Jr., Doyle Zeanah, The Scope of Infant Mental Health. Slade, Cohen, Sadler, Miller, The Psychology and Psychopathology of Pregnancy: Reorganization and Transformation. Sheridan, Nelson, Neurobiology of Fetal and Infant Development: Implications for Infant Mental Health. Rifkin-Graboi, Borelli, Bosquet Enlo, Neurobiology of Stress in Infancy. Rosenblum, Dayton, Muzik, Infant Social and Emotional Development: Emerging Competence in a Relational Context. Ippen, The Sociocultural Context of Infant Mental Health: Toward Contextually Congruent Interventions. O'Connor, Parfitt,Applying Research Findings on Early Experience to Infant Mental Health. Part II: Risk and Protective Factors. Knitzer, Perry, Poverty and Infant and Toddler Development: Facing the Complex Challenges. Goodman, Brand, Infants of Depressed Mothers: Vulnerabilities, Risk Factors, and Protective Factors for the Later Development of Psychopathology. Boris, Parental Substance Abuse. Muller Nix, Ansermet, Prematurity, Risk Factors, and Protective Factors. Schechter, Willheim, The Effects of Violent Experiences on Infants and Young Children. Hans, Thullen, The Relational Context of Adolescent Motherhood. Part III: Assessment. Carter, Godoy, Marakovitz, Briggs-Gowan, Parent Reports and Infant Toddler Mental Health Assessment. Miron, Lewis, Zeanah, Jr., Clinical Use of Observational Procedures in Early Childhood Relationship Assessment. Oppenheim, Koren-Karie, Infant-Parent Relationship Assessment: Parents' Insightfulness Regarding Their Young Children's Internal Worlds. Part IV: Psychopathology. Link Egger, Angold, Classification of Psychopathology in Early Childhood. Carr, Lord, Autism Spectrum Disorders. Windsor, Reichle, Mahowald, Communication Disorders. Hodapp, Thornton-Wells, Dykens, Intellectual Disabilities. Scheeringa, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Owens, Burnham, Sleep Disorders. Benoit, Feeding Disorders, Failure to Thrive, and Obesity. Wakschlag, Danis, Characterizing Early Childhood Disruptive Behavior: Enhancing Developmental Sensitivity. Luby, Depression. Zeanah, Jr., Smyke, Attachment Disorders. Part V: Intervention. Lieberman, Van Horn, Child-Parent Psychotherapy: A Developmental Approach to Mental Health Treatment in Infancy and Early Childhood. Powell, Cooper, Hoffman, Marvin, The Circle of Security. Favez, Frascarolo, Keren, Fivaz-Depeursinge, Principles of Family Therapy in Infancy. Suchman, DeCoste, Mayes, The Mothers and Toddlers Program: An Attachment-Based Intervention for Mothers in Substance Abuse Treatment. Smyke, Breidenstine, Foster Care in Early Childhood. Gleason, Psychopharmacology in Early Childhood: Does It Have a Role? Part VI: Applications of Infant Mental Health. Hinshaw-Fuselier, Doyle Zeanah, Larrieu, Training in Infant Mental Health. Doyle Zeanah, Gleason, Infant Mental Health in Primary Health Care. Johnston, Brinamen, Mental Health Consultation: A Transactional Approach in Child Care. Nagle, The Economics of Infant Mental Health.

Handbook of infant mental health

In a randomized controlled trial, we compared abandoned children reared in institutions to abandoned children placed in institutions but then moved to foster care. Young children living in institutions were randomly assigned to continued institutional care or to placement in foster care, and their cognitive development was tracked through 54 months of age. The cognitive outcome of children who remained in the institution was markedly below that of never-institutionalized children and children taken out of the institution and placed into foster care. The improved cognitive outcomes we observed at 42 and 54 months were most marked for the youngest children placed in foster care. These results point to the negative sequelae of early institutionalization, suggest a possible sensitive period in cognitive development, and underscore the advantages of family placements for young abandoned children.

http://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/318/5858/1937.full.pdf

Cognitive Recovery in Socially Deprived Young Children: The Bucharest Early Intervention Project

This study examined attachment in institutionalized and community children 12-31 months of age in Bucharest, Romania. Attachment was assessed using ratings of attachment behaviors and ratings of caregiver descriptions in a structured interview. As predicted, children raised in institutions exhibited serious disturbances of attachment as assessed by all methods. Observed quality of caregiving was related to formation and organization of attachment in children living in institutions. These results held even when other variables, such as cognitive level, perceived competence, and quantitative interaction ratings, were controlled for. Ratings of attachment behavior in the Strange Situation and caregiver reports of signs of Reactive Attachment Disorder converged moderately. The implications of these findings for different perspectives on attachment are discussed.

Attachment in institutionalized and community children in Romania

This paper describes the clinical and research evidence for the importance of the relational context of posttraumatic stress disorder in young children. We review 17 studies that simultaneously assessed parental and child functioning following trauma. In many studies, despite limitations, an association between undesirable parental/family variables and maladaptive child outcomes has been consistently found. We present a model of the parental/family variables as moderators and vicarious traumatic agents for symptoms in young children. Also, a Compound Model is proposed, with three distinctive patterns of the parent–child relationship that impact on posttraumatic symptomatology in young children. Implications for clinical practice and research directions are discussed.

A relational perspective on PTSD in early childhood.

Objective The reliability and validity of DSM-IV criteria and an alternative set of criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are assessed in infants and young children (younger than 4 years of age). Method This study was conducted in three phases. Phase 1 applied DSM-IV criteria for PTSD to 20 case reports of severely traumatized infants from the literature. Phase 2 used an expanded checklist of symptoms that were developmentally sensitive and behaviorally anchored to create an alternative set of criteria for PTSD in infants. Phase 3 compared the DSM-IV criteria to the alternative criteria on 12 new cases of traumatized infants. Results Infants and young children who have experienced severe traumas show many symptoms of impairment, similar to posttraumatic symptoms in older children and adults. The alternative criteria were more reliable and more valid for diagnosing PTSD in infancy than DSM-IV criteria. Conclusion Clinicians ought to be aware that infants and young children can develop posttraumatic disorders after traumatic events. Criteria for diagnosing these disorders in standard nosologies may need revision for use with children younger than 48 months of age.

Charles H. Zeanah

Papers

Handbook of infant mental health

Cognitive Recovery in Socially Deprived Young Children: The Bucharest Early Intervention Project

Attachment in institutionalized and community children in Romania

A relational perspective on PTSD in early childhood.

Two approaches to the diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder in infancy and early childhood.