Biomass is an important feedstock for the renewable production of fuels, chemicals, and energy. As of 2005, over 3% of the total energy consumption in the United States was supplied by biomass, and it recently surpassed hydroelectric energy as the largest domestic source of renewable energy. Similarly, the European Union received 66.1% of its renewable energy from biomass, which thus surpassed the total combined contribution from hydropower, wind power, geothermal energy, and solar power. In addition to energy, the production of chemicals from biomass is also essential; indeed, the only renewable source of liquid transportation fuels is currently obtained from biomass.

The Catalytic Valorization of Lignin for the Production of Renewable Chemicals

Advances in the development of novel cobalt Fischer-Tropsch catalysts for synthesis of long-chain hydrocarbons and clean fuels.

http://kordnejad69.persiangig.com/document/GTL%20Process/1.pdf

The Fischer–Tropsch process: 1950–2000

Science and technology of novel processes for deep desulfurization of oil refinery streams: a review☆ ☆

Modeling results for a lithium-ion battery based on the couple Li{sub x}C{sub 6} {vert_bar} Li{sub y}Mn{sub 2}O{sub 4} are presented and compared to experimental data. Good agreement between simulation and experiment exists for several different experimental cell configurations on both charge and discharge. Simulations indicate that the battery in its present design is ohmically limited. Additional internal resistance in the cells, beyond that initially predicted by the model, could be described using either a contact resistance between cell layers or a film resistance on the negative electrode particles. Modest diffusion limitations in the carbon electrode arising at moderate discharge rates are used to fit the diffusion coefficient of lithium in the carbon electrode, giving D{sub s{sub {delta}}{sup {minus}}} = 3.9 {times} 10{sup {minus}10} cm{sup 2}/s. Cells with a 1 M (mol/dm{sup 3}) LiPF{sub 6} initial salt concentration become solution-phase diffusion limited at high rates. The low-rate specific energy calculated for the experimental cells ranges from 70 to 90 Wh/kg, with this mass based on the composite electrodes, electrolyte, separator, and current collectors. The peak specific power for a 30 s current pulse to a 2.8 V cutoff potential is predicted to fall from about 360 W/kg at the beginning ofmore » discharge to 100 W/kg at 80% depth of discharge for one particular experimental cell. Different system designs are explored using the mathematical model with the objective of a higher specific energy. Configurations optimized for a 6 h discharge time should obtain over 100 Wh/kg.« less

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/1.1836921/pdf

Comparison of Modeling Predictions with Experimental Data from Plastic Lithium Ion Cells

The term trickle bed is used here to mean a reactor in which a liquid phase and a gas phase flow concurrently downward through a fixed bed of catalyst particles while reaction takes place. The earliest antecedent probably was the so-called “trickling filter” which has long been used for removal of organic matter from wastewater streams by aerobic bacterial action. Biological growths are allowed to attach themselves to a bed of stone or other support over which the wastewater is allowed to trickle in contact with air. Another antecedent appeared in the 1930s when Duftschmid and co-workers at the I.G. Farbenindustrie used evaporative cooling of an inert oil which flowed upwards through a catalyst bed to remove the heat of reaction in a version of the FischerTropsch process for synthesis of liquid fuels from H2 and CO and a later version at the U.S. Bureau of Mines operated with concurrent upflow but without evaporative cooling. This was superceded by an ebulliating bed reactor because of difficulties with cementation of the catalyst in the fixed bed, but commercial scale operations of this process in Germany and elsewhere have all utilized completely vapor-phase reaction (Storch et al., 1951; Crowell et al., 1950; Benson et al., 1954; Kastens et al., 1952). Trickle-bed reactors have been used to a moderate extent in chemical processing, but most of the published information about their industrial applications concerns the processing with hydrogen of various petroleum fractions, in particular the hydrodesulfurization or hydrocracking of heavy or residual oil stocks and the hydrofinishing or hydrotreating of lubricating oils. Their commercial development during the 1950s by the Shell Companies and by the British Petroleum Company has been described by van Deemter (1964), Le Nobel and Choufoer ( 1959), and Lister (1964). The development of hydrocracking and hydrodesulfurization processes by Chevron, Esso (Exxon), Gulf, Union Oil, and others has been described in the proceedings of the various World Petroleum Congresses. Information is fragmentary on uses in chemical processing. A process for synthesis of butynediol (HOCH2C = CCH20H) from aqueous formaldehyde and acetylene uses trickle-bed flow over a copper acetylide catalyst and recycle of the product stream for heat removal (Brusie et al., 1963). Other trickle-bed studies of this reaction are given in a thesis by W. Bill, as reported by Bondi (1971), who also cites trickle-bed studies by H. Hofmann on the hydrogenation of glucose to sorbitol. Kronig (1963) describes a trickle-bed process used in one or more commercial plants for selective hydrogenation of acetylene to remove it in the presence of butadiene in Cq hydrocarbon streams. Operation at 10” to 20°C and 1.9 to 5.8 atm pressure allows liquid-phase processing which reportedly gives long catalyst life, unlike gas-phase processing in which polymers rapidly build up on the catalyst. The standard commercial process for manufacture of hydrogen peroxide utilizes a working solution of an alkyl

Trickle-bed reactors

The rate of synthesis gas consumption over a cobalt Fischer-Tropsch catalyst was measured in a well-mixed, continuous-flow, slurry reactor at 220-240 o C, 0.5-1.5 MPa, H 2 /CO feed ratios of 1.5-3.5, and conversions of 6-68% of hydrogen and 11-73% of carbon monoxide. The inhibiting effect of carbon monoxide was determined quantitatively and a Langmuir-Hinshelwood-type equation of the following form was found to best represent the results: −R H2+CO =aP CO P H2 /(1+bP CO ) 2 . The apparent activation energy was 93-95 kJ/mol. Data from previous studies on cobalt-based Fischer-Tropsch catalysts are also well correlated with this rate expression

Intrinsic kinetics of the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis on a cobalt catalyst

The role of diffusion in catalysis

The effect on the liquid-phase effective diffusivity in fine pores of the ratio of solute molecular diameter to pore diameter and of preferential solute adsorption was studied by measurements on homogeneous silicaalumina bead catalyst (pore diameter = 3.2 nm). A proposed empirical correlation is based on the investigation of a variety of binary systems of paraffins and aromatic hydrocarbons and of aqueous solutions of sugars.

Charles N. Satterfield

Papers

Trickle-bed reactors

Intrinsic kinetics of the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis on a cobalt catalyst

The role of diffusion in catalysis

Restricted diffusion in liquids within fine pores

Evidence for two chain growth probabilities on iron catalysts in the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis