In this critical review, metal oxides-based materials for electrochemical supercapacitor (ES) electrodes are reviewed in detail together with a brief review of carbon materials and conducting polymers. Their advantages, disadvantages, and performance in ES electrodes are discussed through extensive analysis of the literature, and new trends in material development are also reviewed. Two important future research directions are indicated and summarized, based on results published in the literature: the development of composite and nanostructured ES materials to overcome the major challenge posed by the low energy density of ES (476 references).

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A review of electrode materials for electrochemical supercapacitors

It is possible to say that zeolites are the most widely used catalysts in industry They are crystalline microporous materials which have become extremely successful as catalysts for oil refining, petrochemistry, and organic synthesis in the production of fine and speciality chemicals, particularly when dealing with molecules having kinetic diameters below 10 A The reason for their success in catalysis is related to the following specific features of these materials:1 (1) They have very high surface area and adsorption capacity (2) The adsorption properties of the zeolites can be controlled, and they can be varied from hydrophobic to hydrophilic type materials (3) Active sites, such as acid sites for instance, can be generated in the framework and their strength and concentration can be tailored for a particular application (4) The sizes of their channels and cavities are in the range typical for many molecules of interest (5-12 A), and the strong electric fields2 existing in those micropores together with an electronic confinement of the guest molecules3 are responsible for a preactivation of the reactants (5) Their intricate channel structure allows the zeolites to present different types of shape selectivity, ie, product, reactant, and transition state, which can be used to direct a given catalytic reaction toward the desired product avoiding undesired side reactions (6) All of these properties of zeolites, which are of paramount importance in catalysis and make them attractive choices for the types of processes listed above, are ultimately dependent on the thermal and hydrothermal stability of these materials In the case of zeolites, they can be activated to produce very stable materials not just resistant to heat and steam but also to chemical attacks Avelino Corma Canos was born in Moncofar, Spain, in 1951 He studied chemistry at the Universidad de Valencia (1967−1973) and received his PhD at the Universidad Complutense de Madrid in 1976 He became director of the Instituto de Tecnologia Quimica (UPV-CSIC) at the Universidad Politecnica de Valencia in 1990 His current research field is zeolites as catalysts, covering aspects of synthesis, characterization and reactivity in acid−base and redox catalysis A Corma has written about 250 articles on these subjects in international journals, three books, and a number of reviews and book chapters He is a member of the Editorial Board of Zeolites, Catalysis Review Science and Engineering, Catalysis Letters, Applied Catalysis, Journal of Molecular Catalysis, Research Trends, CaTTech, and Journal of the Chemical Society, Chemical Communications A Corma is coauthor of 20 patents, five of them being for commercial applications He has been awarded with the Dupont Award on new materials (1995), and the Spanish National Award “Leonardo Torres Quevedo” on Technology Research (1996) 2373 Chem Rev 1997, 97, 2373−2419

From Microporous to Mesoporous Molecular-Sieve Materials and Their Use in Catalysis

介绍了Kirk—Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology（化工技术百科全书）（第五版）电子图书网络版数据库，并对该数据库使用方法和检索途径作出了说明，且结合实例简单地介绍了该数据库的检索方法。

Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology数据库介绍及实例

Electrolytes have been identified as some of the most influential components in the performance of electrochemical supercapacitors (ESs), which include: electrical double-layer capacitors, pseudocapacitors and hybrid supercapacitors. This paper reviews recent progress in the research and development of ES electrolytes. The electrolytes are classified into several categories, including: aqueous, organic, ionic liquids, solid-state or quasi-solid-state, as well as redox-active electrolytes. Effects of electrolyte properties on ES performance are discussed in detail. The principles and methods of designing and optimizing electrolytes for ES performance and application are highlighted through a comprehensive analysis of the literature. Interaction among the electrolytes, electro-active materials and inactive components (current collectors, binders, and separators) is discussed. The challenges in producing high-performing electrolytes are analyzed. Several possible research directions to overcome these challenges are proposed for future efforts, with the main aim of improving ESs' energy density without sacrificing existing advantages (e.g., a high power density and a long cycle-life) (507 references).

A review of electrolyte materials and compositions for electrochemical supercapacitors

The science and technology of ultracapacitors are reviewed for a number of electrode materials, including carbon, mixed metal oxides, and conducting polymers. More work has been done using microporous carbons than with the other materials and most of the commercially available devices use carbon electrodes and an organic electrolytes. The energy density of these devices is 3¯5 Wh/kg with a power density of 300¯500 W/kg for high efficiency (90¯95%) charge/discharges. Projections of future developments using carbon indicate that energy densities of 10 Wh/kg or higher are likely with power densities of 1¯2 kW/kg. A key problem in the fabrication of these advanced devices is the bonding of the thin electrodes to a current collector such the contact resistance is less than 0.1 cm2. Special attention is given in the paper to comparing the power density characteristics of ultracapacitors and batteries. The comparisons should be made at the same charge/discharge efficiency.

Ultracapacitors: Why, How, and Where is the Technology

This work was supported by MICINN (Project MAT2007-61467).
S.R. thanks MICINN for an FPI doctoral grant.

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Towards a Further Generation of High‐Energy Carbon‐Based Capacitors by Using Redox‐Active Electrolytes

On the pyrolysis of sewage sludge: the influence of pyrolysis conditions on solid, liquid and gas fractions

https://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/89244/1/Graphene%20materials_Botas.pdf

Graphene materials with different structures prepared from the same graphite by the Hummers and Brodie methods

The mechanisms involved in the storage of energy in carbon-based supercapacitors modified by the addition of an electrochemically active compound (quinone/hydroquinone, Q/HQ) into the electrolyte (H2SO4) are investigated. Besides the charging of the double-layer characteristic of carbon materials, galvanostatic cycling experiments performed on each electrode revealed a battery-type behavior in the anode and a pseudocapacitive hydrogen electrosorption process in the cathode as a consequence of an asymmetric split of voltage between the electrodes after the incorporation of HQ. Both the hydrogen electrosorption and Q/HQ redox reactions were studied in depth from the cyclic voltammograms obtained for both electrolytes in a three-electrode cell. An outstanding specific capacitance value of 5017 F g–1 was attained by the anode due to the development of the quinoid redox reactions on its surface. Meanwhile, the cathode capacitance also increased significantly with respect to the value obtained by the supercapac...

Mechanisms of Energy Storage in Carbon-Based Supercapacitors Modified with a Quinoid Redox-Active Electrolyte

https://rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/36069/1/2013_Botas_etal_Carbon.pdf

Clara Blanco

Papers

Towards a Further Generation of High‐Energy Carbon‐Based Capacitors by Using Redox‐Active Electrolytes

On the pyrolysis of sewage sludge: the influence of pyrolysis conditions on solid, liquid and gas fractions

Graphene materials with different structures prepared from the same graphite by the Hummers and Brodie methods

Mechanisms of Energy Storage in Carbon-Based Supercapacitors Modified with a Quinoid Redox-Active Electrolyte

Critical temperatures in the synthesis of graphene-like materials by thermal exfoliation–reduction of graphite oxide