Summary
The diets of over two-thirds of the world's population lack one or more essential mineral elements. This can be remedied through dietary diversification, mineral supplementation, food fortification, or increasing the concentrations and/or bioavailability of mineral elements in produce (biofortification). This article reviews aspects of soil science, plant physiology and genetics underpinning crop biofortification strategies, as well as agronomic and genetic approaches currently taken to biofortify food crops with the mineral elements most commonly lacking in human diets: iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iodine (I) and selenium (Se). Two complementary approaches have been successfully adopted to increase the concentrations of bioavailable mineral elements in food crops. First, agronomic approaches optimizing the application of mineral fertilizers and/or improving the solubilization and mobilization of mineral elements in the soil have been implemented. Secondly, crops have been developed with: increased abilities to acquire mineral elements and accumulate them in edible tissues; increased concentrations of ‘promoter’ substances, such as ascorbate, β-carotene and cysteine-rich polypeptides which stimulate the absorption of essential mineral elements by the gut; and reduced concentrations of ‘antinutrients’, such as oxalate, polyphenolics or phytate, which interfere with their absorption. These approaches are addressing mineral malnutrition in humans globally.

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Biofortification of crops with seven mineral elements often lacking in human diets--iron, zinc, copper, calcium, magnesium, selenium and iodine.

Polyploidization has provided much genetic variation for plant adaptive evolution, but the mechanisms by which the molecular evolution of polyploid genomes establishes genetic architecture underlying species differentiation are unclear Brassica is an ideal model to increase knowledge of polyploid evolution Here we describe a draft genome sequence of Brassica oleracea, comparing it with that of its sister species B rapa to reveal numerous chromosome rearrangements and asymmetrical gene loss in duplicated genomic blocks, asymmetrical amplification of transposable elements, differential gene co-retention for specific pathways and variation in gene expression, including alternative splicing, among a large number of paralogous and orthologous genes Genes related to the production of anticancer phytochemicals and morphological variations illustrate consequences of genome duplication and gene divergence, imparting biochemical and morphological variation to B oleracea This study provides insights into Brassica genome evolution and will underpin research into the many important crops in this genus

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The Brassica oleracea genome reveals the asymmetrical evolution of polyploid genomes

Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants, 2nd edition, H. Marschner. Academic Press, London (1995), 889, (ISBN 0-12-473543-6). Price: 29.95 Pound Sterling

https://www.cell.com/trends/plant-science/pdf/S1360-1385(05)00250-5.pdf

Biofortifying crops with essential mineral elements

Herbs, spices and their active components as natural antimicrobials in foods Effect of natural antioxidants in herbs and spices on shelf life of foods Ajowan Aniseed Asafoetida Allspice Capers and caperberries Caraway Celery Chervil Fennel and fennel seed Galangal Kaffir lime leaf Lavender Lemongrass Lovage Nigella Oregano Poppy Sesame Star anise Tarragon Tamarind Other significant herbs and spices.

Handbook of Herbs and Spices

Accumulation and bioavailability of dietary carotenoids in vegetable crops.

Green leafy vegetables are important sources of dietary carotenoids, and mem- bers of Brassica oleracea L. var. acephala rank highest for reported levels of lutein and β-carotene. Twenty-three leafy B. oleracea cultigens were field grown under similar fertility over two separate years and evaluated for leaf lutein and β-carotene accumulation. Choice of B. oleracea cultigen and year significantly affected carotenoid levels. Lutein concentra- tions ranged from a high of 13.43 mg per 100 g fresh weight (FW) for B. oleracea var. acephala ʻToscanoʼ to a low of 4.84 mg/100 g FW for B. oleracea var. acephala 343-93G1. β-carotene accumulations ranged from a high of 10.00 mg/100 g FW for B. oleracea var. acephala ʻToscanoʼ to a low of 3.82 mg/100 g FW for B. oleracea var. acephala 30343- 93G1. Carotenoid concentrations were significantly higher in year 2 than in year 1, but rank order among the cultigens for both lutein and s-carotene did not change between the years. During each year, there were high correlations between leaf carotenoid and chlorophyll pigments. Under similar growing conditions, choice of B. oleracea cultigen will influence carotenoid accumulation, and this may affect the health benefits of consuming these leafy green vegetable crops. Carotenoids are secondary plant com- pounds that form lipid soluble yellow, orange, and red pigments. Lutein (3R,3´R,6´R β,e- carotene-3,3´diol), a oxygenated xanthophyll, and β-carotene (β,β-carotene), a hydrocarbon carotene, are examples of two nutritionally important plant-derived carotenoids (Zaripheh and Erdman, Jr., 2002). In green plants, carot- enoids are bound to specific protein complexes of PSI and PSII, and along with chlorophyll a and b, function in light harvesting. Carot- enoids also protect photosynthetic structures by quenching

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Variation in Lutein, β-carotene, and Chlorophyll Concentrations among Brassica oleracea Cultigens and Seasons

The objective of these experiments was to investigate the effects of N rate and form on the accumulation of lutein, β-carotene and chlorophyll pigments in the leaf tissues of kale. Winterbor, Toscano and Redbor kale cultivars were greenhouse grown using nutrient solution culture. In the first study, N treatments were 6, 13, 26, 52 and 105mgL −1 at a constant 1NH4-N:3 NO3-N ratio. On a fresh weight basis, plant pigment concentrations (lutein, β-carotene and chlorophylls) were not affected by N rate. When calculated on a dry weight basis, however, carotenoid pigments increased linearly in response to increasing N rate. In a second study, N rate was held constant at 105mgL −1 and N form was changed as follows: 100% NH4-N:0% NO3-N, 75% NH4-N:25% NO3-N, 50% NH4- N:50% NO3-N, 25% NH4-N:75% NO3-N and 0% NH4-N:100% NO3-N. Increasing NO3-N in nutrient solutions from 0 to 100% resulted in increases in both lutein and β-carotene concentrations. Increases in carotenoid concentrations would be expected to increase the nutritional value of kale. Therefore N management should be considered in crop production programmes designed to increase the concentrations of nutritionally valuable carotenoids.  2007 Society of Chemical Industry

Carotenoid Pigments in Kale are Influenced by Nitrogen Concentration and Form

Crop plants are adversely affected by a variety of environmental factors, with air temperature being one of the most infl uential. Plants have developed a number of methods in the adaptation to air temperature variations. However, there is limited research to determine what impact air temperature has on the production of secondary plant compounds, such as carotenoid pigments. Kale (Brassica oleracea L.) and spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) have high concentrations of lutein and β-carotene carotenoids. The objectives of this study were to determine the effects of different growing air temperatures on plant biomass production and the accumulation of elemental nutrients, lutein, β-carotene, and chlorophyll pigments in the leaves of kale and spinach. Plants were grown in nutrient solutions in growth chambers at air temperatures of 15, 20, 25, and 30 °C for 'Winterbor' kale and 10, 15, 20, and 25 °C for 'Melody' spinach. Maximum tissue lutein and β-carotene concentration occurred at 30 °C for kale and 10 °C for spinach. Highest carotenoid accumulations were 16.1 and 11.2 mg/100 g fresh mass for lutein and 13.0 and 10.9 mg/100 g fresh mass for β-carotene for the kale and spinach, respectively. Lutein and β-carotene concentration increased linearly with increasing air temperatures for kale, but the same pigments showed a linear decrease in concentration for increasing air temperatures for spinach. Quantifying the effects of air temperature on carotenoid accumulation in kale and spinach, expressed on a fresh mass basis, is important for growers producing these crops for fresh markets.

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Air Temperature Affects Biomass and Carotenoid Pigment Accumulation in Kale and Spinach Grown in a Controlled Environment

Sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is a popular culinary herbal crop grown for fresh or dry leaf, essential oil, and seed markets. Recently, basil was shown to rank highest among spices and herbal crops for xanthophyll carotenoids, which are associated with decreased risks of cancer and age-related eye diseases. The research goal for the current study was to characterize the concentrations of nutritionally important carotenoid pigments in popular varieties of basil. Eight cultivars of sweet basil ('Genovese', 'Italian Large Leaf', 'Nufar', 'Red Rubin', 'Osmin Purple', 'Spicy Bush', 'Cinnamon', and 'SweetThai') were grown in both field and greenhouse environments and evaluated for plant pigments using HPLC methodology. Environmental and cultivar differences were observed for all of the pigments analyzed. 'Sweet Thai' accumulated the highest concentrations of lutein, zeaxanthin, and β-carotene carotenoids in the field, while 'Osmin Purple' accumulated the highest carotenoid concentrations in the greenhouse. Comparing the two environments, cultivar levels for carotenoid and chlorophyll pigments were higher in the field environment when expressed on both a fresh and dry weight basis. Exceptions were found only for the purple leaf basils ('Osmin Purple' and 'Red Rubin'). Positive correlations existed between carotenoid and chlorophyll pigments in both environments. This study demonstrates sweet basil accumulates high levels of nutritionally important carotenoids in both field and greenhouse environments.

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David E. Kopsell

Papers

Accumulation and bioavailability of dietary carotenoids in vegetable crops.

Variation in Lutein, β-carotene, and Chlorophyll Concentrations among Brassica oleracea Cultigens and Seasons

Carotenoid Pigments in Kale are Influenced by Nitrogen Concentration and Form

Air Temperature Affects Biomass and Carotenoid Pigment Accumulation in Kale and Spinach Grown in a Controlled Environment

Carotenoid and Chlorophyll Pigments in Sweet Basil Grown in the Field and Greenhouse