In 1974 an article appeared in Science magazine with the dry-sounding title “Judgment Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases” by a pair of psychologists who were not well known outside their discipline of decision theory. In it Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman introduced the world to Prospect Theory, which mapped out how humans actually behave when faced with decisions about gains and losses, in contrast to how economists assumed that people behave. Prospect Theory turned Economics on its head by demonstrating through a series of ingenious experiments that people are much more concerned with losses than they are with gains, and that framing a choice from one perspective or the other will result in decisions that are exactly the opposite of each other, even if the outcomes are monetarily the same. Prospect Theory led cognitive psychology in a new direction that began to uncover other human biases in thinking that are probably not learned but are part of our brain’s wiring.

Thinking fast and slow.

Decision and Value Theory.

Valuing high-tech startups using traditional valuation models has continued to pose valuation challenges to entrepreneurs, investors as well as financial analysts. The complications in valuing startups are heightened by the variations in valuation methodologies and the absence of operational data. Identifying the appropriate methodology for valuing startups is crucial to establishing value and a prerequisite for accessing funding through mergers or acquisitions. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of valuation methods on the likelihood of mergers and acquisitions of high-tech startup organizations in the Nigerian capital market. The theoretical underpinning of this study is rooted in valuation theory and mergers and acquisitions theories. The extent to which valuation methods impact the likelihood of securing funds through mergers and acquisitions was the overarching research question. Random sampling was used to obtain records of valuation methods and mergers and acquisitions that occurred between 2006 and 2016 from companies in the high-tech sector. A binary logistic regression model was used to test the impact of valuation methods on the likelihood of mergers and acquisitions of high-tech startups. The impact of valuation methods on the likelihood of mergers and acquisitions was found to be not statistically significant. The participants indicated a preference for specific valuation methods during negotiations for mergers and acquisitions. The findings have implications for positive social change via a reduction in the unemployment rate by encouraging startups with their innovation and entrepreneurship. This should help to facilitate the emergence of sound valuation methods for valuing high-tech startups in the Nigerian capital market.

/pdf/the-impact-of-valuation-methods-on-the-likelihood-of-mergers-23wufj6x5c.pdf

The Impact of Valuation Methods on the Likelihood of Mergers and Acquisitions of High-tech Startup Companies in Nigeria

This paper aims to present a systematic literature review (SRL) on the topic of value investing (VI) in the international studies. The purpose of this study is twofold: to highlight the strategic approaches followed in recent contributions in the field of finance connected to the main approaches of the pioneering authors (Graham and Dodd, 1934; Fisher, 1958; Fama and French, 1992; Lakonishok, Shleifer and Vishny, 1994) who have investigated VI; and to analyse whether scholars follow a qualitative approach in studying VI that enables companies to achieve greater competitive advantage..,From a SLR of peer-reviewed papers covering the period 2007-2017, 45 papers were identified and analysed to present a better understanding of the adopted approaches and methodologies compared to the pioneering contributions on the topic.,This search found that 24 out of 45 papers specifically analyse VI. In particular, this work highlights 20 out of 24 papers that directly or indirectly, follow the approaches of “Graham and Dodd” or “Lakonishok, Shleifer and Vishny”/“Fama and French”, and 4 out of 24 that do not follow one of the main approaches identified. After the descriptive findings of the review, this paper highlights that none of the contributions takes into account qualitative analysis of a company to define whether the firm itself does or does not have a sustainable competitive advantage.,This paper suggests to international investors who intend to invest in one or more markets to revise the basic principles of VI, while also considering qualitative elements related to strategic aspects and behavioural finance. In particular, this study suggests that the investor introduce a qualitative analysis to allocate equity in value firms with a lasting competitive advantage.,This study contributes to advance the knowledge of VI from a theoretical point of view. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, it is the first study that systematises the international literature on this topic by highlighting the main contributions written in the period 2007-2017, analysing the development of the pioneering strategic approaches and examining their method of assessing firms.

Strategic approaches to value investing: a systematic literature review of international studies

The decline in the natural rate of interest, or r-star, over the past decade raises three important questions. First, is this low level for the real short-term interest rate unique to the U.S. economy? Second, is the natural rate likely to remain low in the future? And third, is this low level confined to ?safe? assets? In answer to these questions, evidence suggests that low r-star is a global phenomenon, is likely to be very persistent, and is not confined only to safe assets.

Three Questions on R-star

The significant failure rates observed in mergers and acquisitions (M&A) indicate structural deficiencies in business transactions. This paper identifies serious weaknesses in common valuation methods that play a key role in poor transaction practice. Common valuation methods are in particular discounted cash flow (DCF) methods. DCF methods are usually based on neo-classical theories that assume the existence of a perfect and complete capital market. As will be demonstrated, the underlying theoretical patchwork is contradictory and lacks utility. Therefore, utilizing DCF methods to value a business and deduce economic decisions from such a valuation is decision-making built on sand. Following a normative-deductive methodology, this paper seeks an alternative theoretical concept to build a business valuation theory on solid ground. Such an alternative is found in the Austrian School of thought. The resulting valuation concept, subjective business valuation theory, is based on the theory of marginal utility proposed by Gossen, which was rediscovered and refined by the scholars of the early Austrian School. Contrary to highly restrictive neo-classical valuation, subjective business valuation approaches reality and is therefore well-suited for practical implementation.

Business Valuation Inspired by the Austrian School

Within the Austrian economists’ community, value investing is characterized as a useful investment strategy, and one that is in line with Austrian economics, in particular Austrian value theory. In fact, value investing shares some basic findings with Austrian value theory, especially the crucial distinction between values and prices. However, value investing also contradicts some fundamentals of Austrian economics. Therefore, the authors argue that value investing’s seeming compatibility with Austrian economics must be characterized as a myth. The aim of this article is to illustrate what makes value investing incompatible with Austrian economics and, hence, to terminate this myth.

Value Investing's Compatibility with Austrian Economics-Truth or Myth?

Wahrend sich in der Literatur zahlreiche Beitrage zur Internationalisierung der Rechnungsweseninhalte finden, bleibt die Internationalisierung der zugehorigen Forschung weitgehend unberucksichtigt. Der Beitrag mochte dieser Forschungslucke begegnen und untersucht daher, welchen Weg die Rechnungswesenforschung im deutschsprachigen Raum in Zeiten immer bedeutender werdender Internationalitat beschreitet. Untersuchungsgegenstande sind die AAA- und EAA-Jahreskonferenzen im Zeitraum 1998–2015, fur welche alle Vortrage der „concurrent sessions“ mit Beteiligung von (Ko‑)Autoren von Hochschulen aus dem deutschen Sprachraum ausgewertet wurden. Es zeigt sich, dass die intuitiv aufgestellte These eines Internationalisierungsprozesses nicht durchweg standhalt. Zwar ist auf Ebene der Forschungsinhalte und der Forschungsmethoden eine Internationalisierung zu beobachten; die Prasenz von Wissenschaftlern aus dem deutschen Sprachraum steigt zudem im Zeitablauf deutlich an. Auf Ebene der Forschungsteams kann hingegen keine Internationalisierung konstatiert werden: Forscher aus dem deutschen Sprachraum prasentieren ihre Beitrage zwar zunehmend international, tendieren dabei jedoch weiterhin zu Kooperationen innerhalb des eigenen Sprachraums. Daruber hinaus prasentiert der Beitrag Erkenntnisse zu thematischen und methodischen Schwerpunkten und zur Autorenstruktur der vorgetragenen Arbeiten.

Zur Internationalisierung der Rechnungswesenforschung im deutschen Sprachraum – eine Analyse von AAA- und EAA-Jahreskonferenzen 1998–2015

Bar a few exceptions, the impact of political parties on corporate governance regulation has largely been ignored in research. The current paper aims to narrow that research gap by investigating the motives of parties involved in political discussions on corporate governance. Do the parties’ positions stem from the quest for general welfare, as they claim in their platforms, or from the ambition to maximize votes, as assumed by the Spatial Theory of party behavior in Rational Choice? We analyze the positions taken on the issue of gender balanced composition of supervisory and executive boards by six German political parties. Our findings cast doubt on the parties’ claim to act in the public interest and suggest their actual motive is the maximization of votes.

Do Political Parties Play Dirty in the Discussion on Gender Balanced Boards? Evidence from Germany

Recent entrepreneurship research characterises investments as the very essence of entrepreneurship, supplanting the discovery or creation of opportunities. M&A activity must, therefore, be understood as a key entrepreneurial action. Corresponding M&A decisions require a reliable appraisal beforehand. This is particularly true in case of financially distressed target companies, since such transactions include a high level of uncertainty. The recent financial crisis can be characterised as a cause of companies' financial distress. For the appraisal of such financially distressed companies, literature recommends the same methods used for the appraisal of healthy companies. As will be shown, prevalent appraisal methods cause a profound dilemma when applied for the appraisal of financially distressed companies. Consequently, they need to be substituted by a consistent alternative. The aim of this paper, therefore, is to discuss such an alternative method, which can be consistently applied for the entrepreneurial appraisal of financially distressed - or even bankrupt - companies.

David J. Rapp

Papers

Business Valuation Inspired by the Austrian School

Value Investing's Compatibility with Austrian Economics-Truth or Myth?

Zur Internationalisierung der Rechnungswesenforschung im deutschen Sprachraum – eine Analyse von AAA- und EAA-Jahreskonferenzen 1998–2015

Do Political Parties Play Dirty in the Discussion on Gender Balanced Boards? Evidence from Germany

Investments as key entrepreneurial action: the case of financially distressed target companies