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Modern Applied Statistics With S

How are we able to understand and anticipate each other in everyday life, in our daily interactions? Through the use of such "folk" concepts as belief, desire, intention, and expectation, asserts Daniel Dennett in this first full-scale presentation of a theory of intentionality that he has been developing for almost twenty years. We adopt a stance, he argues, a predictive strategy of interpretation that presupposes the rationality of the people - or other entities - we are hoping to understand and predict.These principles of radical interpretation have far-reaching implications for the metaphysical and scientific status of the processes referred to by the everday terms of folk psychology and their corresponding terms in cognitive science.While Dennett's philosophical stance has been steadfast over the years, his views have undergone successive enrichments, refinements, and extensions. "The Intentional Stance" brings together both previously published and original material: four of the book's ten chapters - its first and the final three - appear here for the first time and push the theory into surprising new territory. The remaining six were published earlier in the 1980s but were not easily accessible; each is followed by a reflection - an essay reconsidering and extending the claims of the earlier work. These reflections and the new chapters represent the vanguard of Dennett's thought. They reveal fresh lines of inquiry into fundamental issues in psychology, artificial intelligence, and evolutionary theory as well as traditional issues in the philosophy of mind.Daniel C. Dennett is Distinguished Arts and Sciences Professor at Tufts University and the author of "Brainstorms" and "Elbow Room." "The Intentional Stance," along with these works, is a Bradford Book.

The Intentional Stance

We propose that the crucial difference between human cognition and that of other species is the ability to participate with others in collaborative activities with shared goals and intentions: shared intentionality. Participation in such activities requires not only especially powerful forms of intention reading and cultural learning, but also a unique motivation to share psychological states with oth- ers and unique forms of cognitive representation for doing so. The result of participating in these activities is species-unique forms of cultural cognition and evolution, enabling everything from the creation and use of linguistic symbols to the construction of social norms and individual beliefs to the establishment of social institutions. In support of this proposal we argue and present evidence that great apes (and some children with autism) understand the basics of intentional action, but they still do not participate in activities involving joint intentions and attention (shared intentionality). Human children's skills of shared intentionality develop gradually during the first 14 months of life as two ontogenetic pathways intertwine: (1) the general ape line of understanding others as animate, goal-directed, and intentional agents; and (2) a species-unique motivation to share emotions, experience, and activities with other persons. The develop- mental outcome is children's ability to construct dialogic cognitive representations, which enable them to participate in earnest in the collectivity that is human cognition.

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Understanding and sharing intentions: The origins of cultural cognition

There is disagreement in the literature about the exact nature of the phenomenon of empathy. There are emotional, cogni- tive, and conditioning views, applying in varying degrees across species. An adequate description of the ultimate and proximate mecha- nism can integrate these views. Proximately, the perception of an object's state activates the subject's corresponding representations, which in turn activate somatic and autonomic responses. This mechanism supports basic behaviors (e.g., alarm, social facilitation, vicar- iousness of emotions, mother-infant responsiveness, and the modeling of competitors and predators) that are crucial for the reproduc- tive success of animals living in groups. The Perception-Action Model (PAM), together with an understanding of how representations change with experience, can explain the major empirical effects in the literature (similarity, familiarity, past experience, explicit teach- ing, and salience). It can also predict a variety of empathy disorders. The interaction between the PAM and prefrontal functioning can also explain different levels of empathy across species and age groups. This view can advance our evolutionary understanding of empa- thy beyond inclusive fitness and reciprocal altruism and can explain different levels of empathy across individuals, species, stages of de- velopment, and situations.

/pdf/empathy-its-ultimate-and-proximate-bases-3gnr9okjki.pdf

Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases.

We argue that an understanding of the faculty of language requires substantial interdisciplinary cooperation. We suggest how current developments in linguistics can be profitably wedded to work in evolutionary biology, anthropology, psychology, and neuroscience. We submit that a distinction should be made between the faculty of language in the broad sense (FLB)and in the narrow sense (FLN) . FLB includes a sensory-motor system, a conceptual-intentional system, and the computational mechanisms for recursion, providing the capacity to generate an infinite range of expressions from a finite set of elements. We hypothesize that FLN only includes recursion and is the only uniquely human component of the faculty of language. We further argue that FLN may have evolved for reasons other than language, hence comparative studies might look for evidence of such computations outside of the domain of communication (for example, number, navigation, and social relations).

/pdf/the-faculty-of-language-what-is-it-who-has-it-and-how-did-it-2ls6go98wi.pdf

The faculty of language: what is it, who has it, and how did it evolve?

Convergent evidence from many species reveals the evolutionary origins of human friendship. In horses, elephants, hyenas, dolphins, monkeys, and chimpanzees, some individuals form friendships that last for years. Bonds occur among females, among males, or between males and females. Genetic relatedness affects friendships. In species where males disperse, friendships are more likely among females. If females disperse, friendships are more likely among males. Not all friendships, however, depend on kinship; many are formed between unrelated individuals. Friendships often involve cooperative interactions that are separated in time. They depend, at least in part, on the memory and emotions associated with past interactions. Applying the term “friendship” to animals is not anthropomorphic: Many studies have shown that the animals themselves recognize others' relationships. Friendships are adaptive. Male allies have superior competitive ability and improved reproductive success; females with the strongest, most...

/pdf/the-evolutionary-origins-of-friendship-voyep3plrq.pdf

The Evolutionary Origins of Friendship

1.

In many Old World monkey species, reproductive benefits accrue to high-ranking males and females. During 15 months' observation of the agonistic interactions of free-ranging juvenile and subadult baboons, most individuals assumed ranks similar to those of their mothers during disputes with their peers. Maternal intervention in the disputes of their offspring appeared to be the primary factor affecting the inheritance of rank. Both the rate and the relative success of maternal aiding behavior were correlated with maternal rank, and therefore tended to perpetuate the existing rank heirarchy across generations.




2.

Although the ranks of immature animals depended on the ability of family members to support them successfully when threatened, immature animals formed aggressive alliances primarily with the members of highranking matrilines. In contrast, adult females in the study troop formed alliances primarily with probably related individuals of adjacent rank. A model is presented that attempts to explain ontogenetic changes in alliance formation on the basis of the potential costs and benefits of entering into aggressive alliances with particular indivuduals.

The acquisition of rank and the development of reciprocal alliances among free-ranging immature baboons

How vervet monkeys perceive their grunts: Field playback experiments

Assessment of meaning and the detection of unreliable signals by vervet monkeys

Male vervet monkeys in Amboseli National Park, Kenya, disperse nonrandomly from their natal groups at sexual maturity, and migrate to specific neighboring groups with their brothers or peers. Nonrandom dispersal in the company of allies appears to benefit young males by minimizing the risk of predation and reducing the probability of attack by resident males and females. Nonrandom dispersal also decreases the likelihood of mating with close female kin. Persistent nonrandom transfer, however, increases the risk of inbreeding depression. We emphasize the importance of considering social, as well as genetic, factors when evaluating the costs and benefits of any pattern of dispersal. In certain cases, there may be social advantages to a particular dispersal pattern even though it appears initially to carry some genetic costs. In other cases, a dispersal pattern that at first appears to increase the risk of inbreeding may in fact permit individuals to avoid mating with close kin. Finally, the benefits of a giv...

Dorothy L. Cheney

Papers

The Evolutionary Origins of Friendship

The acquisition of rank and the development of reciprocal alliances among free-ranging immature baboons

How vervet monkeys perceive their grunts: Field playback experiments

Assessment of meaning and the detection of unreliable signals by vervet monkeys

Nonrandom Dispersal in Free-Ranging Vervet Monkeys: Social and Genetic Consequences