Part I: AN INTRODUCTION TO INQUIRY. 1. Human Inquiry and Science. 2. Paradigms, Theory, and Research. 3. The Ethics and Politics of Social Research. Part II: THE STRUCTURING OF INQUIRY: QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE. 4. Research Design. 5. Conceptualization, Operationalization, and Measurement. 6. Indexes, Scales, and Typologies. 7. The Logic of Sampling. Part III: MODES OF OBSERVATION: QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE. 8. Experiments. 9. Survey Research. 10. Qualitative Field Research. 11. Unobtrusive Research. 12. Evaluation Research. Part IV: ANALYSIS OF DATA:QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE . 13. Qualitative Data Analysis. 14. Quantitative Data Analysis. 15. Reading and Writing Social Research. Appendix A. Using the Library. Appendix B. Random Numbers. Appendix C. Distribution of Chi Square. Appendix D. Normal Curve Areas. Appendix E. Estimated Sampling Error.

社会研究方法基础 = The Basics of Social Research

Urbanization as a major cause of biotic homogenization

https://www.kth.se/social/upload/4ea53de1f27654240a000000/Bolund%20and%20Hunhammar%201999.pdf

Ecosystem services in urban areas

Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers

https://www.fs.fed.us/ne/newtown_square/publications/other_publishers/OCR/ne_2006_nowak001.pdf

Air pollution removal by urban trees and shrubs in the United States

This paper is a review of research in Chicago that linked analyses of vegetation structure with forest functions and values. During 1991, the regions trees removed an estimated 5575 metric tons of air pollutants, providing air cleansing worth 9.2 million. Each year they sequester an estimated 315 800 metric tons of carbon. Increasing tree cover 10% or planting about three trees per building lot saves annual heating and cooling costs by an estimated 50 to 90 per dwelling unit because of increased shade, lower summertime air temperatures, and reduced neighborhood wind speeds once the trees mature. The net present value of the services trees provide is estimated as 402 per planted tree. The present value of long-term benefits is more than twice the present value of costs.

https://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/jrnl/1997/ne_1997_mcpherson_001.pdf

Quantifying urban forest structure, function, and value: the Chicago Urban Forest Climate Project

Measuring and analyzing urban tree cover

A rainfall interception measuring system was developed and tested for open-grown trees. The system includes direct measurements of gross precipitation, throughfall and stemflow, as well as continuous collection of micrometeorological data. The data were sampled every second and collected at 30-s time steps using pressure transducers monitoring water depth in collection containers coupled to Campbell CR10 dataloggers. The system was tested on a 9-year-old broadleaf deciduous tree (pear, Pyrus calleryana ‘Bradford’) and an 8-year-old broadleaf evergreen tree (cork oak, Quercus suber) representing trees having divergent canopy distributions of foliage and stems. Partitioning of gross precipitation into throughfall, stemflow and canopy interception is presented for these two mature open-grown trees during the 1996–1998 rainy seasons. Interception losses accounted for about 15% of gross precipitation for the pear tree and 27% for the oak tree. The fraction of gross precipitation reaching the ground included 8% by stemflow and 77% by throughfall for the pear tree, as compared with 15% and 58%, respectively, for the oak tree. The analysis of temporal patterns in interception indicates that it was greatest at the beginning of each rainfall event. Rainfall frequency is more significant than rainfall rate and duration in determining interception losses. Both stemflow and throughfall varied with rainfall intensity and wind speed. Increasing precipitation rates and wind speed increased stemflow but reduced throughfall. Analysis of rainfall interception processes at different time-scales indicates that canopy interception varied from 100% at the beginning of the rain event to about 3% at the maximum rain intensity for the oak tree. These values reflected the canopy surface water storage changes during the rain event. The winter domain precipitation at our study site in the Central Valley of California limited our opportunities to collect interception data during non-winter seasons. This precipitation pattern makes the results more specific to the Mediterranean climate region. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

https://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/mcpherson/psw_2000_mcpherson002_xiao.pdf

Winter rainfall interception by two mature open‐grown trees in Davis, California

Effects of urban forests on rainfall interception and runoff reduction have been conceptualized, but not well quantified. In this study rainfall interception by street and park trees in Santa Monica, California is simulated. A mass and energy balance rainfall interception model is used to simulate rainfall interception processes (e.g., gross precipitation, free throughfall, canopy drip, stemflow, and evaporation). Annual rainfall interception by the 29,299 street and park trees was 193,168 m 3 (6.6 m 3 /tree), or 1.6% of total precipitation. The annual value of avoided stormwater treatment and flood control costs associated with reduced runoff was $110,890 ($3.60/tree). Interception rate varied with tree species and sizes. Rainfall interception ranged from 15.3% (0.8 m 3 /tree) for a small Jacaranda mimosifolia (3.5 cm diameter at breast height) to 66.5% (20.8 m 3 /tree) for a mature Tristania conferta (38.1 cm). In a 25-year storm, interception by all street and park trees was 12,139.5 m 3 (0.4%), each tree yielding $0.60 (0.4 m 3 /tree) in avoided flood control costs. Rainfall interception varied seasonally, averaging 14.8% during a 21.7 mm winter storm and 79.5% during a 20.3 mm summer storm for a large, deciduous Platanus acerifolia tree. Effects of differences in temporal precipitation patterns, tree population traits, and pruning practices on interception in Santa Monica, Modesto, and Sacramento, California are described.

https://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/mcpherson/psw_2004_mcpherson001_xiao.pdf

Rainfall interception by Santa Monica's municipal urban forest

Measurement of city tree cover can aid in urban vegetation planning, management, and research by revealing characteristics of vegetation across a city. Urban tree cover In the United States ranges from 0.4% in Lancaster, California, to 55% in Baton Rouge. Louisiana. Two important factors that affect the amount of urban @ee cover are the natuwt environment and land use. Urban tree cover Is highest in cities that developed in naturally forested mas (31%), followed by grassland cities (19%) and desert cities (lo%), but showed wide variation based on individual city characteristics, Tree cover ranged from 15 to 55% for cities in forested am. 5 to 398 for those in grassland areas, and 0.4 to 26% for cities developed in desert regions. Park and residential lands along with vacant lands in forested areas generally have the highest me cover among different land uses. Methcds of measuring urban me cover are presented as are planning and management implications of mecover data.

https://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/pubs/jrnl/1996/ne_1996_nowak_001.pdf

E. Gregory McPherson

Papers

Quantifying urban forest structure, function, and value: the Chicago Urban Forest Climate Project

Measuring and analyzing urban tree cover

Winter rainfall interception by two mature open‐grown trees in Davis, California

Rainfall interception by Santa Monica's municipal urban forest

Measuring and analyzing urban tree cover