This review surveys the experimental and theoretical situation concerning charge states and charge-changing cross sections of heavy ions up to and including uranium, which penetrate through gaseous and solid targets with velocities primarily in the range ${v}_{0}lvlZ{v}_{0}$ (${v}_{0}=\frac{{e}^{2}}{\ensuremath{\hbar}}=2.188\ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{}{10}^{8}$ cm/sec). Particular emphasis is given to ions with atomic numbers in the range $16\ensuremath{\le}Z\ensuremath{\le}92$. The published literature is covered through August 1971. General physical and mathematical relations are outlined which describe the composition of charge states in a heavy-ion beam which passes through matter. Recent experimental techniques and methods of data analysis are summarized. Extensive experimental results on heavy-ion equilibrium charge state distributions, average equilibrium charge states, and cross sections for capture and loss of one or more electrons in single encounters with target atoms are presented and critically examined. The data extend to ions as heavy as uranium and energies up to \ensuremath{\sim}400 MeV. Systematic trends are emphasized and generalizations are discussed which allow interpolations and to some extent extrapolations of the data to be made to ranges which have not been investigated experimentally. Attention is given to the cross sections for multiple-electron loss which are relatively large but which are poorly understood. We deal with effects of residual ion excitation on charge-changing collisions in the light of recent experimental results. It is shown that the average equilibrium charge of heavy ions can be approximated by utilizing both theoretical concepts which originate from the work of Bohr and Lamb, and semiempirical relations which are based on observed regularities of the data. Recent interpretations of phenomena associated with density effects, i.e., with the increase of projectile ionization which is observed for increasing target densities, are scrutinized and refinements of the theory by Bohr and Lindhard are explored.

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Charge States and Charge-Changing Cross Sections of Fast Heavy Ions Penetrating Through Gaseous and Solid Media

Equilibrium-charge-state distributions of energetic ions (Z > 2) in gaseous and solid media

The beam-foil technique has been used to measure mean lives of excited levels in neutral and singly ionized zinc, cadmium, and mercury. In the neutral atoms, the lifetimes measured were in good agreement with those obtained by the Hanle-effect and phase-shift techniques, but discrepancies were found in some of the life-times measured by the delayed-coincidence method. For singly ionized zinc and cadmium, six mean lives have been measured, while seven were obtained in singly ionized mercury. For the ionized species, systematic trends show that some of the results recently obtained by the phase-shift method may be in error. The mean lives reported were converted to ; values for transitions for which reliable multiplet intensity ratios are available. The ; value systematics show that for the same type of spectral transition, identical ; values have been obtained within homologous atoms.

Systematic trends in atomic transition probabilities in neutral and singly-ionized zinc, cadmium and mercury

Equilibrium charge state distributions of ions (Z1 ⩾ 4) after passage through foils: Compilation of data after 1972

Preface. 1. Space Storms, Ring Current and Space-Atmosphere Coupling I.A. Daglis. 2. Geomagnetic Storms as a Dominant Component of Space Weather: Classic Picture and Recent Issues Y. Kamide. 3. From the Discovery of Radiation Belts to Space Weather Perspectives J.F. Lemaire. 4. The Interplanetary Causes of Magnetic Storms, Substorms and Geomagnetic Quiet B.T. Tsurutani. 5. Interplanetary Magnetic Field Dynamics N.F. Ness. 6. Bayesian Classification of Geoeffective Solar Wind Structures J. Chen. 7. Coronal Mass Ejections at the Sun and in Interplanetary Space P.J. Cargill. 8. Measurements of Energetic Particles in the Radiation Belts B. Klecker. 9. Solar Activity Variations and Possible Effects on Climate E. Friis-Christensen. 10. Cosmic Ray and Radiation Belt Hazards for Space Missions M.I. Panasyuk. 11. Satellite Anomalies due to Space Storms D.N. Baker. 12. Space Weather Effects on Communications L.J. Lanzerotti. 13. An Introduction to Power Grid Impacts and Vulnerabilities from Space Weather J.G. Kappenman. 14. Global Magnetospheric Modelling M. Scholer. 15. The Role and Form of Modelling in Space Weather K. Papadopoulos. 16. MHD Modelling of Space Weather Drivers K. Tsinganos. 17. State of the Art in Space Weather Services and Forecasting J.A. Joselyn. 18. Space Weather: An Air Force Research Laboratory Perspectives G.P. Ginet. 19. ESA Space Weather Activities E.J. Daly. Index.

E.H. Pedersen

Papers

Equilibrium charge distributions of ion beams in carbon