Metamaterials are artificially fabricated materials that allow for the control of light and acoustic waves in a manner that is not possible in nature. This Review covers the recent developments in the study of so-called metasurfaces, which offer the possibility of controlling light with ultrathin, planar optical components. Conventional optical components such as lenses, waveplates and holograms rely on light propagation over distances much larger than the wavelength to shape wavefronts. In this way substantial changes of the amplitude, phase or polarization of light waves are gradually accumulated along the optical path. This Review focuses on recent developments on flat, ultrathin optical components dubbed 'metasurfaces' that produce abrupt changes over the scale of the free-space wavelength in the phase, amplitude and/or polarization of a light beam. Metasurfaces are generally created by assembling arrays of miniature, anisotropic light scatterers (that is, resonators such as optical antennas). The spacing between antennas and their dimensions are much smaller than the wavelength. As a result the metasurfaces, on account of Huygens principle, are able to mould optical wavefronts into arbitrary shapes with subwavelength resolution by introducing spatial variations in the optical response of the light scatterers. Such gradient metasurfaces go beyond the well-established technology of frequency selective surfaces made of periodic structures and are extending to new spectral regions the functionalities of conventional microwave and millimetre-wave transmit-arrays and reflect-arrays. Metasurfaces can also be created by using ultrathin films of materials with large optical losses. By using the controllable abrupt phase shifts associated with reflection or transmission of light waves at the interface between lossy materials, such metasurfaces operate like optically thin cavities that strongly modify the light spectrum. Technology opportunities in various spectral regions and their potential advantages in replacing existing optical components are discussed.

Flat Optics With Designer Metasurfaces

Semiconductor-based photocatalysts and photoelectrochemical cells for solar fuel generation: a review

Hydrogen production from solar water splitting has been considered as an ultimate solution to the energy and environmental issues. Over the past few years, graphene has made great contribution to improving the light-driven hydrogen generation performance. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the recent research progress on graphene-based materials for hydrogen evolution from light-driven water splitting. It begins with a brief introduction of the current status and basic principles of hydrogen generation from solar water splitting, and tailoring properties of graphene for application in this area. Then, the roles of graphene in hydrogen generation reaction, including an electron acceptor and transporter, a cocatalyst, a photocatalyst, and a photosensitizer, are elaborated respectively. After that, the comparison between graphene and other carbon materials in solar water splitting is made. Last, this review is concluded with remarks on some challenges and perspectives in this emerging field.

Graphene-Based Materials for Hydrogen Generation from Light-Driven Water Splitting†

Dynamically reconfigurable metasurfaces open up unprecedented opportunities in applications such as high capacity communications, dynamic beam shaping, hyperspectral imaging, and adaptive optics. The realization of high performance metasurface-based devices remains a great challenge due to very limited tuning ranges and modulation depths. Here we show that a widely tunable metasurface composed of optical antennas on graphene can be incorporated into a subwavelength-thick optical cavity to create an electrically tunable perfect absorber. By switching the absorber in and out of the critical coupling condition via the gate voltage applied on graphene, a modulation depth of up to 100% can be achieved. In particular, we demonstrated ultrathin (thickness < λ0/10) high speed (up to 20 GHz) optical modulators over a broad wavelength range (5–7 μm). The operating wavelength can be scaled from the near-infrared to the terahertz by simply tailoring the metasurface and cavity dimensions.

Electrically Tunable Metasurface Perfect Absorbers for Ultrathin Mid-Infrared Optical Modulators

Photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting is a promising technology for solar hydrogen production to build a sustainable, renewable and clean energy economy. Hematite (α-Fe2O3) based photoanodes offer promise for such applications, due to their high chemical stability, great abundance and low cost. Despite these promising properties, progress towards the manufacture of practical water splitting devices has been limited. This review is intended to highlight recent advancements and the limitations that still hamper the full utilization of hematite electrodes in PEC water splitting systems. We review recent progress in manipulating hematite for PEC water splitting through various approaches, focused on e.g. enhancing light absorption, water oxidation kinetics, and charge carrier collection efficiency. As the morphology affects various properties, progress in morphological characterization from thicker planar films to recent ultrathin nanophotonic morphologies is also examined. Special emphasis has been given to various ultrathin films and nanophotonic structures which have not been given much attention in previous review articles.

Using hematite for photoelectrochemical water splitting: a review of current progress and challenges.

Semiconductor photoelectrodes for solar hydrogen production by water photoelectrolysis must employ stable, non-toxic, abundant and inexpensive visible-light absorbers. Iron oxide (α-Fe(2)O(3)) is one of few materials meeting these requirements, but its poor transport properties present challenges for efficient charge-carrier generation, separation, collection and injection. Here we show that these challenges can be addressed by means of resonant light trapping in ultrathin films designed as optical cavities. Interference between forward- and backward-propagating waves enhances the light absorption in quarter-wave or, in some cases, deeper subwavelength films, amplifying the intensity close to the surface wherein photogenerated minority charge carriers (holes) can reach the surface and oxidize water before recombination takes place. Combining this effect with photon retrapping schemes, such as using V-shaped cells, provides efficient light harvesting in ultrathin films of high internal quantum efficiency, overcoming the trade-off between light absorption and charge collection. A water photo-oxidation current density of 4 mA cm(-2) was achieved using a V-shaped cell comprising ~26-nm-thick Ti-doped α-Fe(2)O(3) films on back-reflector substrates coated with silver-gold alloy.

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Resonant light trapping in ultrathin films for water splitting

A radiation conversion device is presented comprising at least one radiation conversion cell. The radiation conversion cell comprises a photo-absorber unit having a predetermined absorption spectrum for absorbing radiation of a certain wavelength range thereby converting the absorbed radiation into charge carriers, and at least partially reflective layer structure configured to be substantially reflective for said certain wavelength range. The photo-absorber unit and the at least partially reflective structure are configured to provide a desired refractive index profile across the radiation conversion cell with respect to said certain wavelength range and to define an optical cavity with respect to said certain wavelength range within the photo-absorber unit, thereby providing a desired interference condition for said certain wavelength range, thereby causing the radiation, absorbed by and propagating through said photo-absorber unit while being reflected from said at least partially reflective structure, to be effectively trapped within said photo-absorber unit.

Elad Sharlin

Papers

Resonant light trapping in ultrathin films for water splitting

Ultrathin film solar cells