The differences model, which argues that males and females are vastly different psychologically, dominates the popular media. Here, the author advances a very different view, the gender similarities hypothesis, which holds that males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables. Results from a review of 46 meta-analyses support the gender similarities hypothesis. Gender differences can vary substantially in magnitude at different ages and depend on the context in which measurement occurs. Overinflated claims of gender differences carry substantial costs in areas such as the workplace and relationships.

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The gender similarities hypothesis.

Journalists and authors of trade books increasingly assert a female advantage in leadership, whereby women are more likely than men to lead in a style that is effective under contemporary conditions. Contrasting our analysis of these claims with Vecchio's [Leadersh. Q. 13 (2002) 643] analysis, we show that women have some advantages in typical leadership style but suffer some disadvantages from prejudicial evaluations of their competence as leaders, especially in masculine organizational contexts. Nonetheless, more women are rising into leadership roles at all levels, including elite executive roles. We suggest reasons for this rise and argue that organizations can capture the symbols of progressive social change and modernity by appointments of women in key positions.

/pdf/the-female-leadership-advantage-an-evaluation-of-the-si5vz81mq0.pdf

The female leadership advantage: An evaluation of the evidence

Recent Research on Team and Organizational Diversity: SWOT Analysis and Implications

/pdf/why-so-few-women-in-science-technology-engineering-and-e22p3s90ly.pdf

Why so Few Women in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics

A second‐order meta‐analysis was conducted to assess the implications of using college student subjects in social science research. Four meta‐analyses investigating response homogeneity (cumulative N > 650,000) and 30 meta‐analyses reporting effect sizes for 65 behavioral or psychological relationships (cumulative N > 350,000) provided comparative data for college student subjects and nonstudent (adult) subjects for the present research. In general, responses of college student subjects were found to be slightly more homogeneous than those of nonstudent subjects. Moreover, effect sizes derived from college student subjects frequently differed from those derived from nonstudent subjects both directionally and in magnitude. Because there was no systematic pattern to the differences observed, caution must be exercised when attempting to extend any relationship found using college student subjects to a nonstudent (adult) population. The results augur in favor of, and emphasize the importance of, replicating r...

https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/323732

On the Use of College Students in Social Science Research: Insights from a Second‐Order Meta‐analysis

Many researchers have studied sex differences in job attribute preferences. The authors meta-analyzed 242 samples collected from 321,672 men and boys and 316,842 women and girls in the United States between 1970 and 1998. Findings indicated significant (p < .05) sex differences on 33 of 40 job attribute preferences examined. The effect sizes were small. Of the 33 significant differences, 26 had average effect sizes of magnitude .20 or less. The directions of the differences were generally consistent with gender roles and stereotypes. Many job attributes became relatively more important to women and girls in the 1980s and 1990s compared with the 1970s, indicating that women's aspirations to obtain job attributes rose as gender barriers to opportunity declined.

http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/bul/126/4/593.pdf

Sex differences and similarities in job attribute preferences: A meta-analysis.

Data from the Monitoring the Future Study were used to examine the impact of early gender role attitudes on later career outcomes for women and men. We also examined the impact of marriage, children, and labor market outcomes on changes in gender role attitudes. Women’s early gender role attitudes predicted their later work hours and earnings. Women’s work hours predicted their later gender egalitarianism. Children were negatively associated with later gender egalitarianism for both women and men. Findings indicated that gender role attitudes influence subsequent behavior, but they may also be adjusted to accommodate to situational constraints.

Gender Role Attitudes and Careers: A Longitudinal Study

Purpose – The purpose of this study is to explore the links from self‐focused emotional labor (surface acting) and other‐focused emotional labor (emotional enhancement) to job satisfaction, affective commitment, emotional exhaustion, and intentions to quit.Design/methodology/approach – The study employed a cross‐sectional survey of 363 nurses' aides and childcare workers.Findings – Surface acting, a type of self‐focused emotional labor, was related to negative work outcomes (lower job satisfaction and affective commitment as well as higher turnover intentions and emotional exhaustion). Emotional enhancement, a form of other‐focused emotional labor, was related to positive outcomes (lower turnover intentions and emotional exhaustion) when performed for clients' family members, but not for clients.Research limitations/implications – The cross sectional design of this study limits the ability to map the temporal ordering of these relationships, and thus to determine if emotional enhancement is a job resource...

Emotional labor: links to work attitudes and emotional exhaustion

Meta-analysis of 31 studies examined whether women and men in management and business schools differ in their job attribute preferences. Findings indicated no significant sex differences for 9 of the 21 job attribute preferences studied. The 12 significant sex differences indicated that men considered earnings and responsibility to be more important than women did, whereas women considered prestige, challenge, task significance, variety, growth, job security, good coworkers, a good supervisor, and the physical work environment to be more important than men did. The significant sex differences were small, nine of them having a magnitude of .10 standard deviation units or less. Students showed larger sex differences than managers did, and changes over time showed that women increased their ratings of the importance of four job attributes relative to men. The findings imply that sex differences in job attribute preferences are not an important determinant of women’s lower status in management.

Sex Differences in Job Attribute Preferences among Managers and Business Students

This article used a differential salience demands-resources model to explore how self-focused (i.e., surface and deep acting) and other-focused (i.e., emotional enhancement and relationship management) job-related emotional labor are associated with bidirectional measures of work-family conflict and facilitation. Results indicated that surface acting was related positively with time-, strain-, and behavior-based work-family conflict and was associated negatively with work-to-family facilitation. Emotional enhancement was linked negatively to time-based work-to-family conflict and strain-based family-to-work conflict. Finally, relationship management was related negatively to both directions of behavior-based work-family conflict, but was associated positively with both directions of work-family enhancement. Results support the expansion of job-related emotional labor to include other- as well as self-focused aspects.

Elizabeth A. Corrigall

Papers

Sex differences and similarities in job attribute preferences: A meta-analysis.

Gender Role Attitudes and Careers: A Longitudinal Study

Emotional labor: links to work attitudes and emotional exhaustion

Sex Differences in Job Attribute Preferences among Managers and Business Students

Job-Related Emotional Labor and Its Relationship to Work-Family Conflict and Facilitation